THE  TEXTILE   FIBRES 


THEIR  PHYSICAL,  MICROSCOPICAL 


CHEMICAL    PROPERTIES 


J.     MERRITT     MATTHEWS,     PH.D. 

Formerly  Head  of  Chemical  and  Dyeing  Department 
Philadelphia  Textile  School 


SECOND    EDITION,    REWRITTEN 
FIRST   THOUSAND 


NEW   YORK 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SON! 
LONDON:     CHAPMAN    &    HALL, 

19°8         0/$C4j?0£D 

tolr^. 

AS) 


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Ojv. 

I  ntsi 

Copyright,  1904,  1907 

HY 

J.  MERRITT  MATTHEWS 


ROBERT   DRUMMOND,    PRINTER.    NEW    YORK 


: 


PREFACE. 


THE  present  book,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  of  assistance  to  both 
the  practical  operator  in  textiles  and  the  student  on  textile 
subjects.  It  has  been  the  outgrowth  of  a  number  of  years  of 
experience  in  the  teaching  of  textile  chemistry,  as  well  as  prac- 
tical observation  in  the  many  mill  problems  which  have  come 
under  the  notice  of  the  author. 

The  textile  fibres  form  the  raw  materials  for  many  of  our 
greatest  industries,  and  hence  it  is  of  importance  that  the  facts 
concerning  them  should  be  systematized  into  some  form  of 
scientific  knowledge.  The  author  has  attempted,  however,  not 
to  allow  the  purely  scientific  phase  of  the  subject  to  overbalance 
the  practical  bearing  of  such  knowledge  on  the  every-day  problems 
of  industry. 

Heretofore,  the  literature  on  the  textile  fibres  has  been  chiefly 
confined  to  a  chapter  or  two  in  general  treatises  on  dyeing  or 
other  textile  subjects,  or  to  specialized  books  such  as  Hohnel's 
work  on  the  microscopy  of  the  fibres.  It  has  been  the  author's 
endeavor,  in  the  present  volume,  to  bring  together,  as  far  as 
possible,  all  of  the  material  available  for  the  study  of  the  textile 
fibres.  Such  material  is  as  yet  incomplete  and  rather  poorly 
organized  at  its  best;  but  it'is  hoped  that  this  volume  may  prove 
a  stimulus  along  the  several  lines  of  research  which  are  available 
in  this  field.  Unfortunately,  the  subject  of  the  textile  fibres 
has  been  lamentably  neglected  by  chemists,  although  there  is 
abundant  indication  that  a  fertile  field  of  research  is  open  to 
chemists  in  this  direction,  and  such  work  would  have  not  only 


iv  PREFACE. 

a  scientific  value,  but  might  also  lead  to  great  industrial  worth. 
There  is,  as  yet,  relatively  little  known  concerning  the  chemical 
constituents  of  the  fibres,  and  the  manner  in  which  varying 
chemical  conditions  affect  the  composition  and  properties  of 
these  constituents.  The  action  of  various  chemical  agents  on 
the  fibre  as  an  individual  has  been  but  very  imperfectly  studied. 
More  work  has  been  done  in  the  microscopical  field  concerning 
the  properties  of  the  fibres;  but  even  here  the  knowledge  is 
very  incomplete  and  disjointed,  and  especial  attention  is  drawn 
to  the  fact  there  is  yet  a  large  amount  of  work  to  be  done  in  the 
microchemistry  of  the  subject. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  emphasize  throughout  this 
volume  the  importance  of  the  study  of  the  fibre  as  an  individual, 
for  in  many  cases  it  is  misleading  to  assume  that  the  behavior 
of  the  individual  fibre  is  identical  with  that  of  a  large  mass  of 
fibres  in  the  form  of  yarn  or  cloth.  In  the  latter  case,  the  dif- 
ference in  physical  condition  and  the  action  of  mechanical  forces 
has  an  important  influence.  By  going  back  to  the  study  of  the 
individual  fibre  as  a  basis,  many  explanations  can  be  given  which 
could  not  be  discovered  otherwise. 

It  is  hoped  that  this  book  may  afford  instruction  both  to 
the  manufacturer  and  to  the  student;  assisting  the  former  in 
solving  some  of  the  many  practical  problems  constantly  occurring 
in  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  and  urging  the  latter  on  to  an 
increased  effort  in  the  scientific  development  of  the  subject. 

J.  MERRITT  MATTHEWS. 

PHILADELPHIA  TEXTILE  SCHOOL, 
January,  1907. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    THE    TEXTILE    FIBRES. 

PAGE 

1.  Fibres  Chiefly  Used  for  Textiles i 

2.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Fibres i 

3.  Mineral  and  Artificial  Fibres 4 

CHAPTER  II. 

WOOL    AND    HAIR    FIBRES. 

1.  The  Sheep 8 

2.  Physiology  and  Structure  of  Wool 13 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE  CHEMICAL  NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES. 

1.  Chemical  Constitution 33 

2.  Chemical  Reactions 41 

3.  Microchemical  Reactions 51 

4.  Hygroscopic  Quality 52 

5.  Conditioning  of  Wool 53 

CHAPTER  IV. 

SHODDY    AND    WOOL    SUBSTITUTES. 

1 .  Varieties  of  Shoddy 70 

2.  Examination  of  Shoddy 71 

CHAPTER  V. 

MINOR    HAIR    FIBRES. 

1.  The  Minor  Hair  Fibres 75 

2.  Mohair 75 

3.  Cashmere 77 

v 


vi  CONTENTS, 

PAGE 

4.  Alpaca 79 

5.  Vicuna  Wool 8l 

6.  Llama  Fibre 82 

7.  Camel-hair 83 

8.  Cow-hair 85 

9.  Minor  Hair  Fibres 87 

CHAPTER  VI. 
SILK:  IJTS  ORIGIN  AND  CULTIVATION. 

1 .  General  Considerations 91 

2.  The  Silkworm 91 

3.  Diseases  of  the  Silkworm 99 

4.  Wild  Silks ioi 

5.  The  Microscopical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Silk 103 

6.  Silk-reeling no 

7 .  Determination  of  Size  of  Silk  Yarns 112 

CHAPTER  VII. 

CHEMICAL    NATURE    AND    PROPERTIES    OF    SILK. 

1.  Chemical  Constitution. 116 

2.  Chemical  Reactions 123 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES. 

1 .  General  Considerations 130 

2.  Classification 134 

3.  Physical  Structure  and  Properties 144 

4.  Chemical  Composition  and  Properties 149 

5.  Chemical  Investigation  of  Vegetable  Fibres..  .  ; 154 

CHAPTER  IX. 

COTTON. 

1 .  Historical 157 

2 .  Origin  and  Growth 1 60 

3 .  Varieties  of  Cotton 172 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE    PHYSICAL    STRUCTURE    AND    PROPERTIES    OF    COTTON. 

T  .   Physical  Structure 186 

•2 .  Microscopical  Properties 200 

3.  Physical  Properties 203 

4 .  Hygroscopic  Quality 206 


CONTENTS.  vii 
CHAPTER  XL 

CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;  CELLULOSE. 

PAGE 

1 .  Chemical  Constitution 209 

2.  Cellulose 213 

3.  Chemical  Reactions  of  Cotton 222 

CHAPTER  XII. 

MERCERIZED    COTTON. 

1 .  Mercerizing 234 

2.  Conditions  of  Mercerizing 239 

3.  Properties  of  Mercerized  Cotton 245 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

SEED-HAIRS    OTHER    THAN    COTTON. 

1 .  Bombax  Cotton , 249 

2.  Vegetable  Silk 252 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;  LUSTRA-CELLULOSE. 

1 .  General  Considerations 255 

2.  Chardonnet  Silk 256 

3.  Du  Vivier's  Silk 260 

4.  Lehner's  Silk 261 

5.  Cuprammonium  Silk 262 

6.  Viscose  Silk 263 

7.  Properties  of  Lustra-cellulose 265 

8.  Vanduara  Silk 267 

9.  Comparison  of  Artificial  Silks 268 

10.  Animalized  Cotton 270 

CHAPTER    XV. 

LINEN. 

1 .  Preparation 271 

2.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties 278 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

JUTE,    RAMIE,    HEMP,    AND    MINOR    VEGETABLE    FIBRES. 

1 .  Jute 284 

2.  Ramie  or  China  Grass ; 291 

3.  Hemp 297 

4.  Sunn  Hemp     306 

5.  Ambari  or  Gambo  Hemp 308 

6.  New  Zealand  Flax 3to 

7.  Manila  Hemp 313 


viii  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

8.  Sisal  Hemp 316 

9.  Aloe  Fibre  or  Mauritius  Hemp 318 

10.  Pita  Fibre 320 

1 1 .  Pineapple  Fibre  or  Silk  Grass 323 

12.  Coir  Fibre 324 

13.  Istle  Fibre 326 

14.  Nettle  Fibre 326 

15.  Fibre  of  Urena  Sinuata 328 

16.  Sansevieria  Fibres 329 

17.  Fibre  of  Sea  Grass 330 

18.  Raphia 330 

19.  Bromelia  Fibres 331 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

QUALITATIVE    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    TEXTILE    FIBRES. 

1 .  Fibres  to  be  Considered 334 

2.  Qualitative  Tests.' 335 

3.  Distinction  between  Cotton  and  Linen 342 

4.  Distinction  between  New  Zealand  Flax,  Jute,  Hemp,  and  Linen  .  346 

5 .  Ligneous  Matter 349 

6.  Reactions  of  Bast  Fibres 349 

7.  Systematic  Analysis  of  Mixed  Fibres 349 

8.  Identification  of  Artificial  Silks 350 

9.  Distinction  between  True  Silk  and  Different  Varieties  of  Wild 

Silk 350 

to.  Micro-analytical  Tables 355 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

QUANTITATIVE    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    TEXTILE    FIBRES. 

1 .  Wool  and  Cotton  Fabrics 378 

2.  Wool  and  Silk 383 

3.  Silk  and  Cotton 384 

4.  Wool.  Cotton,  and  Silk 385 

5.  Analysis  of  Weighting  in  Silk  Fabrics 393 

6.  Oil  and  Grease  in  Yarns  and  Fabrics 406 

7.  Estimation  of  Finishing  Materials  on  Fabrics 407 

8.  Testing  the  Water-proof  Quality  of  Fabrics 408 

APPENDIX  I. 
MICROSCOPIC  ANALYSIS  OF  FABRICS 411 

APPENDIX  II. 
MACHINE  FOR  DETERMINING  STRENGTH  OF  FIBRES -414 

APPENDIX  III. 
COMMERCIAL  VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN  COTTON 417 

APPENDIX  IV. 
BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES 431 


THE  TEXTILE   FIBRES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  TEXTILE   FIBRES. 

1.  Fibres  Chiefly  Used  for  Textiles. — In  order  to  be  service- 
able in  a  textile  fabric,  a  fibre  must  possess  sufficient  length  to 
be  woven  and  a  physical  structure  which  will  permit  of  several 
fibres  being  spun  together,  thereby  yielding  a  continuous  thread 
of  considerable  tensile  strength  and  pliability.     Although  there 
are  several  fibres,  such  as  spun  glass,  asbestos,  various  grasses, 
etc.,  which  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  textiles  in  peculiar 
and  rare  instances,  yet  the  fibres  which  are  employed  to  the 
greatest  extent  and  which  exhibit  the  most  satisfactory  qualities 
are  wool,  silk,  cotton,  and  linen.     All  of  these  possess  an  organ- 
ized structure,  and  are  the  products  of  a  natural  growth  in  life 
processes. 

According  to  Georgevics,  all  textile  fibres  may  be  divided 
into  four  distinct  classes;  and  though  the  same  general  arrange- 
ment is  here  preserved,  the  order  has  been  somewhat  changed 
so  as  to  bring  the  most  prominent  ones  first:  (i)  Animal  fibres; 
(2)  Vegetable  fibres;  (3)  Mineral  fibres;  (4)  Artificial  fibres. 

2.  Animal  and  Vegetable  Fibres. — According  to  their  origin, 
we  may  divide  the  principal  fibres  into  two  general  classes,  those 
derived  from  animal  and  those  derived  from  vegetable  life.     The 
former  includes  wool  and  silk,  and  the  latter  cotton  and  linen. 
Animal   fibres   are   essentially   nitrogenous   substances    (protein 


2  THE   fEXTlLE  FIBRES. 

matter),*  and  in  some  cases  contain  sulphur.  They  may  also 
be  solid  filaments  formed  from  a  liquid  secretion  of  certain  cater- 
pillars, spiders,  or  mollusc*.  Alkalies  readily  attack  the  animal 
fibres,  causing  them  to  be  cUss^lved,  but  they  withstand  the  action 
of  mineral  acids  to  a  considerable  degree.  Contrary  to  the 


Scl. 


FIG.  i.— Section  of  Vascular  Bundle  of  Sisal  Hemp. 

Par,  cellular  parenchyma;  S.S.,  starch  layer;  Scl,  sclerenchyma;  M.L.,  middle 
lamella;  B.S.,  bundle  sheath;  X,  xylem  or  wood  cells;  P.H.,  phloem  or 
bast  cells.  (After  Morris.) 

vegetable  fibres,  they  are  readily  injured  if  exposed  to  elevated 
temperatures.     Vegetable  fibres  consist    of   plant-cells,!  usually 


*  Protein  matter  is  of  the  character  of  albumin,  and  forms  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal ingredients  of  animal  tissues.  It  is  essentially  nitrogenous  in  composition 
and  is  especially  characterized  by  the  peculiar  empyreumatic  odor  evolved  when 
burned.  One  of  the  readiest  and  most  conclusive  tests,  in  fact,  which  may  be 
used  to  distinguish  between  an  animal  and  a  vegetable  fibre  is  to  notice  the  odor 
evolved  on  burning  in  the  air.  With  regard  to  their  physical  condition,  it  may 
be  said  the  proteids  composing  the  animal  fibres  are  essentially  of  a  colloidal 
nature;  that  is,  they  resemble  a  solidified  jelly  in  condition.  This  property  of 
the  fibres  may  be  used,  to  a  great  extent,  to  explain  their  action  with  solutions  of 
dyestuffs  and  metallic  salts,  in  which  the  theory  of  solid  solution  and  osmosis 
comes  into  play. 

f  Plant-cells  are  of  different  character  and  size  depending  on  the  part  of  the 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


rather  simple  in  structure  and  forming  an  integral  part  of  the 
plant    itself.     They   are   capable   of   withstanding    rather   high 
temperatures,   and  are  not  weakened    or    disinte- 
grated  by  the    action    of  dilute    alkalies.      They 
consist  essentially  of  cellulose,  which   may   be  in 
a  very  pure  form   or   be  mixed  with    its  various 
alteration    products.      In    some    cases    the    fibre 
consists  of  some  cellulose   derivative   obtained  by 
chemical  means,  such,  for  instance,  as  mercerized 
cotton.      Concentrated  alkalies  produce  alteration 
products    with    the    vegetable    fibres.      Free  sul- 
phuric   or    hydrochloric  acid,  even   if    only    mod- 
erately   strong,    will    quickly    attack    the     fibre,     l° 
disintegrating    its   organic    structure    and    forming 
hydrolyzed    products.      Nitric    acid,  on    the   other 
hand,    forms     nitrated     celluloses     (the     so-called 
nitro-celluloses)  and  various  oxidation  derivatives.      cells  of  Wood 
It  is  generally  considered  that  the  animal  fibres  Tissue.  (XSQO.) 
have    a    lower   conductivity   for  heat   than    have    (After  Gray^ 
the  vegetable  fibres,  and    in    consequence    fabrics   made   from 
WTOO!  and  silk  are  warmer  than  those  made  from  cotton  and 
linen.* 


FIG.  2. 


plant  in  which  they  occur  and  the  office  or  function  they  perform  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plant  tissue.  These  cells  consist  of  tubes  generally  between  o.ooi  in. 
and  0.002  in.  in  diameter;  their  ends  are  usually  pointed  and  in  their  arrange- 
ment overlap  one  another.  (See  Fig.  2.)  In  the  fibrous  layers  occurring  in  plants 
these  cells  are  sufficiently  long  and  so  interlaced  as  to  give  a  fibre  of  considerable 
strength,  whereas  in  plain  woody  tissue  the  cells  are  short  and  properly  speak- 
ing yield  no  fibre  of  sufficient  strength  or  length  to  be  used  for  textile  purposes. 
In  monocotyledons,  according  to  Dr.  Morris,  the  fibrous  cells  are  found  built 
up  with  vessels  into  a  composite  structure  known  as  nbro-vascular  bundles;  these 
bundles  occur  in  the  leaves  and  stems,  but  not  in  the  outer  bark  of  plants  (see 
Fig.  i),  and  are  usually  found  imbedded  in  a  soft  cellular  tissue  known  as 
parenchyma. 

*  Count  Rumford  made  some  interesting  experiments  relative  to  the  c  heat- 
retaining  value"  of  various  clothing  materials.  He  heated  a  large  thermometer 
to  a  given  temperature  and  then  ascertained  the  length  of  time  required  for  the 
thermometer  to  fall  to  a  given  point  when  surrounded  with  the  various  mate- 
rials experimented  upon.  The  times  taken  by  the  thermometer  in  falling  from 


4  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

3.  Mineral  and  Artificial  Fibres. — These  two  classes  of  fibres 
are  of  rare  occurrence  in  the  textile  industry  when  compared 
with  the  extensive  use  of  the  preceding  fibres.  They  find  a  lim- 
ited use,  however,  for  certain  purposes,  and  deserve  to  be  con- 
sidered in  a  systematic  study  of  the  subject.  The  principal,  and 
strictly  speaking  the  only,  mineral  fibre  is  asbestos,  which  occurs 
in  nature  as  the  mineral  of  that  name.  It  is  a  fibrous  silicate  of 
magnesium  and  calcium,  though  often  containing  iron  and  alumin- 
ium in  its  composition,  especially  in  the  dark-colored  varieties.* 
This  mineral,  though  in  the  form  of  a  hard  rock,  can  be  easily 
separated  into  slender  f  white  fibres  (Fig.  3),  sometimes  inclining 

70°    to    10°    Reaumur,    when    surrounded   with     various    substances,    were    as 

follows: 

Seconds. 

Air 576 

Raw  silk 1284 

Sheep's  wool 1 18 

Cotton 1046 

Fine  lint 1032 

Beaver's  fur 1296 

Hare's  fur 1315 

'     Eiderdown 1305 

In  another  series  of  experiments,  however,  using  the  same  materials  differently 

arranged,  very  different  results  were  obtained: 

Seconds. 

Sheep's  wool,  loosely  arranged 1118 

Woolen  thread,  wound  round  bulb 934 

Cotton,  loose 1046 

Cotton  thread,  wound  round  bulb 852 

Lint,  loose 1032 

Linen  thread,  wound  round  bulb 873 

Linen  cloth,  ditto 786 

From  these  experiments,  Rumford  showed  that  the  heat-retaining  value  of 
clothing  depends  more  on  its  texture  than  on  its  actual  material.  For  further 
consideration  of  this  subject,  see  Mattieu  Williams'  book  on  The  Philosophy  of 
Clothing. 

*  The  general  term  "asbestos"  includes  the  fibrous  varieties  of  both  pyroxene 
and  hornblende.  Pyroxene  is  a  compound  silicate  of  magnesium  and  calcium, 
always  containing  iron,  and  generally  also  some  manganese.  Hornblende  (also 
known  as  amphibole)  is  very  similar  in  composition,  but  often  contains  alu- 
minium. 

fThe  individual  fibres  of  asbestos  are  so  fine  as  to  approach  the  limits  of 
microscopic  measurement  which  is  Jj«=  0.0005  Imn' ' 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.  5 

towards  a  greenish  color.  The  fibres  of  some  varieties  (Canadian) 
are  curly,  and  afford  the  best  material  for  spinning.*  In  general, 
however,  the  fibres  of  asbestos  are  straight  and  glassy  in  structure, 
and  are  difficult  to  spin  into  a  coherent  thread.  In  order  to 
enhance  its  spinning  qualities  it  is  mixed  with  a  little  cotton  or 
linen,  the  latter  fibre  being  subsequently  destroyed  by  heating 
the  woven  fabric  to  incandescence.  By  improved  methods  of 
handling,  however,  it  is  now  possible  to  spin  asbestos  directly 
without  admixture  with  cotton;  the  asbestos  is  first  softened 


FIG.  3. — Asbestos  Fibre.     (X5-)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

in  hot  water  and  then  disintegrated  mechanically  into  the  fibre. 
At  the  present  time  quite  a  variety  of  fabrics  are  manufactured 
from  asbestos  fibre,  and  the  high  quality  of  many  articles  appearing 

*  Asbestos  occurs  in  a  variety  of  species,  some  of  which  are  much  more  valu- 
able than  others  for  fibre  purposes.  In  some  the  fibres  are  slender  and  easily 
separable,  and  of  a  white  or  greenish  color.  A  variety  known  as  Amianthus 
gives  fibres  of  a  fine  silky  quality.  Ligniform  asbestos  is  a  hard  compact  variety, 
resembling  petrified  wood  in  appearance,  and  brownish  to  yellowish  in  color; 
a  wool-like  variety  found  near  Vesuvius  is  known  as  Breislakite.  A  variety  of 
serpentine  also  yields  an  asbestos,  but  of  inferior  quality;  it  differs  from  the 
hornblende  variety  in  that  it  contains  about  14  per  cent,  of  water  in  its  com- 
position. The  mineralogical  name  for  this  fibrous  variety  of  serpentine  is 
chrysotile.  Canadian  asbestos  is  the  most  valuable  as  a  source  for  textile  pur- 
poses, as  it  yields  a  curly  fibre  easily  spun  into  threads. 


6  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES 

on  the  market  shows  that  the  art  of  manipulating  this  substance 
has  reached  a  high  degree  of  perfection.  On  account  of  its 
incombustible  nature,  and  as  it  is  a  very  poor  conductor  of  heat, 
it  is  made  into  fabrics  where  these  qualities  are  especially  desired 
Thus  it  is  frequently  manufactured  into  gloves  and  aprons,  packing 
for  steam-cylinders,  theatrical  curtains  and  scenery,  lamp- wicks, 
etc.  The  latter  use  of  asbestos  was  known  to  the  ancients,  who 
employed  it  for  the  wicks  of  the  perpetual  lamps  in  their  temples. 
It  is  from  this  fact,  indeed,  that  it  received  its  name,  the  word 
"asbestos"  meaning  "unconsumed."  It  was  also  employed  for 
napkins  on  account  of  its  being  readily  cleansed,  it  only  being 
necessary  to  heat  the  fabric  in  a  flame  to  make  it  clean  again. 
In  some  cases  asbestos  is  spun  directly  around  a  copper  wire  for 
purposes  of  insulation.  Asbestos,  in  general,  is  not  dyed,  and 
does  not  undergo  any  chemical  processes  or  modes  of  treatment. 
When  it  is  desirable  to  dye  it  the  various  substantive  dyes  may 
be  used  with  good  effect,  or  the  color  may  be  applied  by  mordant- 
ing with  albumen. 

The  artificial  fibres  may  be  divided  into  two  groups:  (a) 
those  of  mineral  origin  and  (&)  those  of  animal  or  vegetable 
origin.  In  the  first  division  may  be  classed  such  fibres  as  spun 
glass,  metallic  threads,  and  slag  wool;  in  the  second  division 
may  be  put  the  various  artificial  silks,  such  as  lustra-cellulose 
and  gelatin  silk. 

Fibres  of  spun  glass  are  prepared  by  drawing  out  molten 
glass  in  the  form  of  very  fine  threads ;  *  colored  glasses  may  be  used 
to  give  rise  to  variously  colored  threads.  Owing  to  its  brittle 
nature  and  lack  of  elasticity,  spun  glass  receives  a  very  limited 
application,  it  being- made  into  various  ornamental  objects,  and 
sometimes  into  cravats.f  A  variety  of  spun  glass  known  as  glass 
wool  is  used  to  some  extent  in  the  chemical  laboratory  as  a  filter- 
ing medium  for  liquids  which  would  destroy  ordinary  filter-paper. 

*  Glass  threads  can  be  drawn  out  so  fine  that  it  takes  about  1400  miles  of 
the  fibre  to  weigh  one  pound. 

t  Though  fabrics  composed  of  glass  are  rare,  yet  colored  glass  threads  are 
somewhat  used  for  the  weft  in  silk  materials  for  the  purpose  of  producing  novel 
effects,  as  the  glass  gives  the  fabric  great  lustre  and  stiffness. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.  7 

Glass  wool  is  curly,  this  property  being  given  to  it  by  drawing 
out  the  glass  thread  from  two  pieces  of  glass  of  different  degrees 
of  hardness;  and  by  unequal  contraction  on  cooling,  this  double 
thread  curls  up. 

Various  metals  are  at  times  drawn  out  into  threads  for  use  in 
decorative  fabrics.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  and  various  alloys  are 
used  for  this  purpose,  the  metals  being  heated  to  redness  or  until 
they  are  in  a  softened  condition.  At  the  present  time  metallic 
threads  are  largely  imitated  by  coating  linen  yarns  with  a  thin 
film  of  gold  or  silver.  Threads  of  pure  gold  are  seldom  made; 
what  is  known  as  "  pure-gold  "  thread  is  a  fine  silver  wire  covered 
with  a  thin  layer  of  gold.  Silver  thread  is  sometimes  made 
with  a  core  of  copper  and  a  layer  of  silver.  Lyon's  gold  thread 
consists  of  copper  faced  with  gold.  Metallic  threads  are  usually 
made  into  a  flattened  or  band-like  form  by  rolling;  by  twisting 
with  silk  or  woolen  yarns,  the  so-called  "brilliant"  yarns  are 
made.  The  Cyprian  gold  thread  of  old  embroideries  consists 
of  a  linen  or  silk  thread  around  which  is  twisted  a  cover  of  gilded 
catgut. 

Metallic  threads  are  used  for  quite  a  large  number  of  fabrics, 
such  as  passementerie  work,  trimmings,  brocades,  decorative 
embroidery,  church  vestments,  fancy  costumes,  tapestries,  fancy 
vestings,  etc. 

Slag  wool  is  prepared  by  blowing  steam  through  molten  slag; 
it  can  scarcely  be  called  a  textile  fibre,  but  it  is  used  in  some 
degree  as  a  packing  material. 

Artificial  silks  are  made  either  from  cellulose  derivatives  or 
gelatin  by  forcing  solutions  of  these  through  fine  capillary  tubes, 
coagulating  the  resulting  threads,  and  subsequently  subjecting 
them  to  various  processes  of  chemical  treatment.  As  these 
belong  more  strictly  to  the  class  of  true  textile  fibres,  they  will 
be  given  a  more  extensive  consideration,  in  a  further  section, 
as  being  derivatives  of  cellulose.* 


*  Artificial  cotton  is  made  from  pine  wood.  The  latter  is  cut  up  into  shavings 
and  reduced  to  the  fibre,  which  is  then  steamed  and  boiled  under  pressure  with 
caustic-soda  solution. 


CHAPTER  II. 

WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES. 

i.  The  Sheep. — The  woolly,  hair-like  covering  of  the  sheep 
forms  the  most  important  and  the  most  typical  of  the  textile 
fibres  which  are  obtained  from  the  skin  tissues  of  different  animals. 
The  hairy  coverings  of  a  large  number  of  animals  are  employed 
to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  as  raw  materials  for  the  manufacture 
of  different  textile  products,  but  those  of  the  various  species  of 
sheep  make  up  the  great  bulk  of  the  fibres  which  possess  any 
considerable  technical  importance.  Hairs,  derived  from  what- 
ever species  of  animals,  have  very  much  in  common  as  to  their 
general  physical  and  chemical  properties;  they  are  also  similar 
with  respect  to  their  physiological  origin  and  growth.  The 
hairs,  however,  of  different  animals  vary  much  in  the  detail 
of  their  special  characteristics,  and  also  with  regard  to  their 
adaptability  for  use  in  the  textile  industry;  and  the  wool  of  the 
sheep  appears  to  exhibit  in  the  highest  degree  those  specific 
properties  which  make  the  most  suitable  textile  fibre.  These 
properties  may  be  enumerated  as  being:  (a)  Sufficient  length, 
strength,  and  elasticity,  together  with  certain  surface  cohesion, 
to  enable  several  fibres  to  be  twisted  or  spun  together  so  as  to 
form  a  coherent  and  continuous  thread  or  yarn;  (£>)  the  power 
of  absorbing  coloring-matters  from  solution  and  becoming  dyed 
thereby,  and  also  the  property  of  becoming  decolorized  or  bleached 
when  treated  with  suitable  chemical  agents;  (c]  in  addition  to 
these  qualities,  which  they  have  in  common  with  almost  any 
textile  fibre,  wool  fibres  also  possess  the  quality  of  becoming 
felted  or  matted  together,  due  to  the  peculiar  physical  character 
of  their  surfaces.  This  property  is  a  most  valuable  one,  as  it 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  9 

adapts  wool  to  a  large  number  of  uses  to  which  other  fibres  are 
unsuitable. 

Silk  is  also  a  member  of  the  general  group  of  animal  fibres,, 
and  though  it  possesses  certain  general  chemical  characteristics, 
in  common  with  wool  and  hair,  yet  it  has  an  entirely  different 
physiological  origin,  being  a  filament  of  animal  tissue  excreted 
by  a  certain  species  of  caterpillar,  and  hence  is  totally  different 
from  wool  in  its  physical  properties.  There  is  also  a  distinct 
chemical  difference  in  wool  and  silk.  The  former  contains  sul- 
phur as  an  essential  constituent,  while  the  latter  contains  no- 
sulphur  in  its  composition.  Wool  may  be  specifically  designated 
as  a  variety  of  hair  growing  on  certain  species  of  mammalia, 
such  as  sheep,  goats,  etc.  The  unmodified  term  "wool"  has 
special  reference  to  the  product  obtained  from  the  different 
varieties  of  .sheep.  Cashmere,  mohair,  and  alpaca  are  the  products 
obtained  from  the  thibet,  angora,  and  llama  goats,  respectively. 
Fur  is  also  a  modified  form  of  hair,  but  differs  from  wool  in  many 
of  its  physical  properties,*  and  is  not  adapted  for  use  in  the  manu- 
facture of  spun  textiles.  It  is,  however,  largely  employed  for  the 
making  of  hat  felts,  f 

The  wool-bearing  animals  all  belong  to  the  order  Ruminantia, 
which  includes  those  animals  that  chew  their  cud  or  ruminate. 
The  principal  members  of  this  order  are  sheep,  goats,  and  camels. 
The  sheep  belongs  to  the  class  Ovida,  and  occurs  in  a  number 
of  species  which  vary  considerably  in  form  and  geographical 
distribution,  as  well  as  in  the  character  of  the  wool  it  produces. 
Broadly  considered,  naturalists  divide  the  sheep  into  three  different 
classes : 

(a)  Ovis  aries,  commonly  known  as  the  domestic  sheep,  and 
cultivated  more  or  less  in  every  country  in  the  world. 

(b}  Ovis  musmon,  occurring  native  in  the  European  and 
African  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

(c)  Ovis  ammon,  which  includes  the  wild  or  mountain  sheep 


*  The  cross-section  of  wool  is  almost  circular,  while  that  of  fui  is  quite  elliptical. 

t  The  fur  of  the  hare,  rabbit,  and  cat  is  occasionally  mixed  with  cotton,  wool, 
or  waste  silk  and  spun  into  yarns.  Such  yarns  are  principally  used  for  the  weav- 
ing of  certain  kinds  of  velvets. 


10  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

(argali]  to  be  found  in  Asia  and  America.     The  big-horn  sheep 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  belongs  to  this  class.* 

The  domestic  sheep  is  the  most  important  of  these  classes. 
It  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  indigenous  to  any  one  country,  for  it 

*  A  more  detailed  classification  than  the  above  is  given  by  Archer,  who  divides 
the  sheep  into  thirty-two  varieties: 

1.  Spanish,  or  merino  sheep  (Ovis  hispaniam). 

2.  Common  sheep  (Ovis  rusticus). 
3    Cretan  sheep  (Ovis  strepsiceros}. 

4.  Crimean  sheep  (Ovis  longicaudatus). 

5.  Hooniah,  or  black-faced  sheep  of  Thibet. 

6.  Cago,  or  tame  sheep  of  Cabul  (Ovis  cagia). 

7.  Nepal  sheep  (Ovis  selingid). 

8.  Curumbar,  or  Mysore  sheep. 

9.  Garar,  or  Indian  sheep. 
10.  Dukhun,  or  Deccan  sheep. 

II    Morvant  de  la  chine,  or  Chinese  sheep. 

12.  Shaymbliar,  or  Mysore  sheep. 

13    Broad-tailed  sheep  (Ovis  laticaudatus). 

14.  Many-horned  sheep  (Ovis  polyceratus), 

15.  Pucha,  or  Hindoostan  dumba  sheep. 

1 6.  Tartary  sheep. 

17.  Javanese  sheep. 

18.  Barwall  sheep  (Ovis  Barnal). 

19.  Short-tailed  sheep  of  northern  Russia  (Ovis  brevicaudatus). 

20.  Smooth -haired  sheep  (Ovis  Ethiopia). 

21.  African  sheep  (Ovts  Grienensis). 

22  Guinea  sheep  (Ovis  ammon  Guinensis). 

23  Zeylan  sheep. 

24.  Fezzan  sheep. 

25.  Congo  sheep  (Ovis  aries  Congensis"), 

26.  Angola  sheep  (Ovis  aries  Angolensis). 

27  Yenu,  or  goitred  sheep  (Ovis  aries  steatiniora). 

28.  Madagascar  sheep. 

29.  Bearded  sheep  of  west  Africa. 

30.  Morocco  sheep  (Ovis  aries  mun&dcR). 

31.  West  Indian  sheep  of  Jamaica. 

32.  Brazilian  sheep. 

These  represent  the  naturally  occurring  classes  of  sheep  in  the  different  coun- 
tries; of  course,  a  large  number  have  been  emigrated  and  domesticated  in  other 
countries  than  tfcose  in  which  they  had  their  origin,  which  has  given  rise  to  several 
sub-varieties.  Then,  too,  new  varieties  have  been  formed  by  cross-breeding 
and  intermixing,  which  has  brought  about  a  considerable  variation  in  the  type. 
The  latter  is  also  influenced  very  largely  by  climatic  conditions,  geographical 
environment,  and  character  of  pasturage. 


WOOL  AND  HAIR.  FIBRES.  n 

appears  to  have  been  cultivated  by  the  earliest  peoples  in  history, 
and  it  has  spread  over  the  entire  face  of  the  globe  with  the  gradual 
extension  of  civilization  itself.  Different  conditions  of  climate 
and  soil,  of  pasturage  and  cultivation,  appear  to  exert  a  consider- 
able influence  on  the  variety  of  the  sheep  and  on  the  character  of 
the  wool  it  eventually  produces.  Variations  are  also  produced 
by  cross-breeding  and  intermixing,  and  the  nature  of  the  fibre  has 
been  much  altered  and  improved  by  careful  selection  in  breeding- 
and  genealogical  development. 

Sheep  in  their  natural  condition  produce  two  kinds  of  hair: 
the  one  giving  a  long,  stiff  fibre,  which  we  will  call  "beard-hair"; 
and  the  other  a  shorter,  softer,  and  more  curly  fibre,  which  we 
will  designate  as  "  wool-hair,"  or  true  wool.  By  domestication  and 
proper  cultivation  the  sheep  can  be  made  to  produce  the  latter 
kind  of  hair  almost  exclusively,  with  but  little  or  none  of  the  hairy 
iibre.  Herein  the  sheep  differs  essentially  from  the  goat,  as  the 
latter  will  always  produce  both  kinds  of  fibre,  though  the  fineness 
and  quality  of  its  hair  may  be  much  improved  by  proper  cultiva- 
tion. In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  varieties  of  hair,  most 
sheep  grow  more  or  less  of  short,  stiff  hairs,  or  undergrowth; 
these  have  no  value  as  textile  fibres.  It  must  be  mentioned,  how- 
ever, that  the  exact  character  of  the  wool  on  the  individual  sheep 
•varies  considerably  with  its  position  in  the  fleece;  on  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  animal  the  wool  becomes  more  hairy  in  nature,  and 
near  the  feet  the  short  undergrowth  of  stiff  hair  is  alone  to  be 
found.  The  texture,  length,  and  softness  of  the  fibre  also  differ 
•considerably  in  different  portions  of  the  fleece.*  < Hence  it  becomes 
necessary,  in  order  to  obtain  a  homogeneous  mixture  of  fibres 
with  properties  as  constant  as  possible,  to  sort  out  the  fibres  of 
the  fleece  into  different  portions,  which  are  put  together  into 
•different  grades  of  wool  stock.  This  operation  is  termed  wool- 
sorting  and  grading,  and  is  an  important  step  in  the  manufacture 

*  In  well-cultivated  sheep  the  wool-hairs  are  usually  united  in  tufts  or  locks 
containing  a  hundred  or  more  fibres.  Often  several  locks  are  connected  into 
one  large  one  called  a  staple,  the  hairs  joining  the  locks  together  being  known 
as  binders.  The  number  of  hairs  growing  on  each  square  inch  of  the  sheep's 
skin  is  between  4,500  and  5,500. 


12  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

of  wool.  Different  varieties  of  wool  may  require  different  sys- 
tems and  degrees  of  sorting,  but  in  general  the  fleece  is  roughly 
divided  into  nine  sections,  given  as  follows: 

(1)  The  shoulders  and  sides  of  the  fleece  give  the  finest  and 
most  even  staples  of  fibre. 

(2)  The  lower  part  of  the  back  yields  a  fibre  of  fairly  good 
staple. 

(3)  The  lorn  and  back  give  a  shorter  staple,  and  the  fibre  is 
not  as  strong. 

(4)  The  upper  part  of  the  legs  give  a  staple  of  moderate 
length.     The  fibre  on  this  part  is  frequently  in  the  form  of  loose, 
open  locks  and  acquires  a  large  amount  of  burrs  by  brushing 
against  the  spinose  fruit  of  the  plant;  the  presence  of  these  burrs 
considerably  lessens  the  commercial  value  of  the  wool.     South 
American  wool  is  especially  liable  to  be  heavily  charged  with 
burrs. 

(5)  The  upper  part  of  the  neck  gives  a  rather  irregular  staple 
which  is  also  very  frequently  filled  with  burrs. 

(6)  The  centre  of  the  back  gives  a  fine  delicate  staple  similar 
to  that  from  the  loins. 

(7)  The  belly,  together  with  the  wool  from  the  fore  and  hind 
legs,  yields  a  poor  staple  and  a  weak  fibre. 

(8)  The  tail  gives  a  short,  coarse,  and  lustrous  fibre,  fre- 
quently containing  a  considerable  amount  of  kemps. 

(9)  The  head,  chest,  and  shins  give  a  short,  stiff,  and  straight 
fibre,  opaque  and  dead  white  in  color. 

The  merino  sheep,  which  yields  what  is  considered  to  be  the 
finest  quality  of  wool,  appears  to  have  originated  in  Spain,  and  at 
one  time  was  extensively  cultivated  by  the  Moors.  The  exporta- 
tion of  merino  sheep  from  Spain  was  long  guarded  against  with 
great  care,  no  one  being  allowed  to  take  a  live  merino  sheep  out 
of  the  kingdom  of  Spain  under  penalty  of  death.  Later,  hov  - 
ever,  this  sheep  was  brought  into  various  countries,  being  crossed 
with  the  different  local  breeds  with  very  beneficial  results.  A 
German  derivative  of  the  Spanish  merino  known  as  the  Saxony 
Electoral  merino,  gives  perhaps  the  highest  grade  of  fibre  known 
in  Europe.  Australian  sheep  are  mostly  derived  from  merino 


WOOL  AND  HAIR.  FIBRES.  13 

and  other  high-class  stock  and  yield  a  wool  of  the  very  highest 
quality.  The  merino  has  been  cultivated  and  crossed  with  other 
breeds  throughout  the  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  the 
latter  country  is  gradually  becoming  a  large  producer  of  middle- 
grade  wool.* 

The  amount  of  fibre  in  the  fleece  varies  greatly  with  the  breed, 
sex,  age,  and  racial  conditions  of  the  animal.  The  average  yield 
xrom  the  ewe  is  1.75  to  4  Ibs.,  and  from  the  wether  3.5  to  7.5  Ibs. 

2.  Physiology  and  Structure  of  Wool. — Wool,  in  common  with 
all  kinds  of  hair,  is  a  growth  originating  in  the  skin  or  cuticle  of 
the  vertebrate  animals,  and  is  similar  in  its  origin  and  general 
composition  to  the  various  other  skin  tissues  to  be  found  in  ani- 
mals, such  as  horn,  nails,  feathers,  etc.  Wool  is  an  organized 
structure  growing  from  a  root  situated  in  the  dermis  or  middle 
layer  of  the  skin,  its  ultimate  physical  elements  being  several 
series  of  animal  cells  of  different  forms  and  properties.  Herein 
it  differs  essentially  from  silk,  which  is  not  composed  of  cells,  but 
is  a  continuous  and  homogeneous  tissue.  The  root  of  the  wool 
fibre  is  termed  the  hair  follicle  (Fig.  4) ;  it  is  a  gland  wrhich  secretes 
a  lymph-like  liquid,  from  which  the  hair  is  gradually  developed 
by  the  process  of  growth.  The  hair  follicle  also  secretes  an  oil, 
which  is  supplied  to  the  fibre  during  its  growth  and  serves  the 
purpose  of  lubricating  its  several  parts,  giving  it  pliability  and 
elasticity.  In  conjunction  with  the  hair  follicle  there  also  occur 
in  the  skin  numerous  sebaceous  glands  which  secrete  a  fatty  or 
waxy  substance,  commonly  known  as  wool-fat.  This  substance 
gradually  exudes  from  the  glands  and  coats  the  surface  of  the 

*  According  to  the  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufacturers,  the  wool 
clip  for  1905  in  the  United  States  amounted  to  295,488,438  pounds;  during  the 
same  year  the  net  imports  of  wool  were  242,471,489  pounds,  giving  a  total  supply 
of  632,331,459  pounds. 

The  imports  of  manufactures  of  wool  for  1905  amounted  in  value  to  $21,373,- 
742,  and  estimating  three  pounds  of  wool  in  the  grease  for  each  .dollar  in  value, 
we  reckon  that  in  the  form  of  manufactured  goods  there  were  imported  in  this 
year  64,121,226  pounds,  which  added  to  the  takings  of  domestic  mills  (478,667,- 
887)  amounted  to  542,789,113  pounds  of  wool  as  approximately  representing 
the  consumption  of  wool  by  the  American  people  in  the  way  of  domestic  and 
foreign  manufactures,  which,  distributed  on  the  basis  of  the  population,  amounted 
to  6.54  pounds  of  wool  per  capita  required  to  meet  consumptive  demand. 


14  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

wool  in  rather  considerable  amount  (Fig.  5).  It  affords  a  pro- 
tective coating  to  the  fibre  which  serves  to  preserve  the  latter  from 
mechanical  injury  during  its  growth,  and  also  prevents  the  sev- 
eral fibres  from  becoming  matted  and  felted  together.  In  the 
preparation  of  wool  for  manufacture,  this  fatty  covering  has  to  be 
removed,  the  operation  constituting  the  ordinary  process  of  wool- 


-PL 


FIG.  4. — Section  of  Hair  Follicle.     (Xioo.) 

C,  cuticle  of  skin;  R,  reta  mucosum;  PL,  papillary  layer;  S,  sebaceous  glands; 
P,  papilla;  B,  bulb  of  hair;  H,  hair;  F,  fibrous  tissue;  SH,  transparent 
sheath.  (Micrograph  by  author.) 

scouring.  There  is  also  a  wool-oil  which  is  contained  in  the  cells 
of  the  £bre  itself,  and  is  a  true  constituent  of  its  substance. 
This  oil  should  not  be  removed,  as  its  removal  causes  the  fibre  to 
lose  much  of  its  elasticity  and  resiliency.  The  oil  amounts  to 
about  i  per  cent,  of  the  total  weight  of  the  fibre,  whereas  the 
external  fatty  matters  amount  on  an  average  to  about  30  per  cent. 


WOOL   AND  HAIR  FIBRES. 


A,  irregular  lumps  of  grease  and  dirt;    also  note  that  outline  of  scales  is  very 
indistinct.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 


FiG.  6.— Typical  Wool  Fibres  after  Removal  of  Grease.     (X35Q.) 
(Micrograph  by  author.) 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Morphologically  considered,  the  wool  fibre  consists  of  three 
distinct  portions:  (a)  A  cellular  marrow,  or  medulla,  which 
frequently  contains  more  or  less  pigment  matter  to  which  the 
wool  owes  its  color;  (6)  a  layer  of  cellular  fibrous  substance  or 
cortical  tissue  which  gives  the  fibre  its  chief  strength  and  elasticity; 


FIG.  7. — Sections  of  a  Hair  Fibre. 
a,  cross-section;   b,  longitudinal  section;  A,  epidermal  layer  of  scales;  B,  cortical 
layer  of  fibrous  cells;    C,  medullary  layer  of  round  cells. 
(Micrograph  by  author.) 

(c)  an  outer  layer,  or  epidermis,  of  horn  tissue,  consisting  of  flat- 
tened cells,  or  scales,  the  ends  of  which  generally  overlap  each 
•other,  and  project  outwards,  causing  the  edge  of  the  fibre  to 
present  a  serrated  appearance  (Fig.  7).  This  scaly  covering 
gives  the  fibre  its  quality  of  rigidity  and  resistance  to  crushing 


FIG.  8. — Diagram  showing  Felting  Action  of  \ 


(Drawing  by  author.) 


strain;  it  also  causes  the  fibres  to  felt  together  on  rubbing  against 
one  another  by  the  interlocking  of  the  projecting  edges  of  the 
scales  (Fig.  8). 

Any  one  of  these  three  physical  constituents  may  at  times  be 
lacking  in  a  fibre.  When  the  epidermal  scales  are  absent,  they 
have  simply  been  rubbed  off  by  friction;  this  condition  is  fre- 
quently to  be  found  at  the  ends  of  long  beard- hairs.  The  cortical 
layer  of  fibrous  tissue  is  frequently  but  slightly  developed,  espe- 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  17 

cially  in  cases  where  the  medulla  is  large :  in  some  instances,  indeed 
(as  in  the  hair  of  the  doe),  the  cortical  layer  appears  to  be  totally 
absent  in  the  broadest  parts  of  the  fibre.  The  medulla  is  very 
frequently  absent,  or,  at  least,  shows  no  difference  in  structure 
from  the  cells  of  the  surrounding  cortical  layer  (Fig.  10);  this 
occurs  more  especially  in  the  wool-hairs,  but  is  also  to  be  found  in 
beard-hairs.  On  the  other  hand,  the  medulla  is  occasionally 
more  largely  developed  than  the  cortical  layer,  and  becomes  the 


FIG.  9. — Beard-hair  of  Doe.     (X35O.) 

Showing  small  development  of  cortical  layer  and  large  medulla. 
(Micrograph  by  author.) 

principal  part  of  the  fibre,   as  in  the  beard-hairs  of  the  doe* 
(Fig.  9). 

The  microscopic  appearance  of  wool  is  sufficiently  character' 
istic  to  distinguish  it  from  all  other  fibres.  Under  even  moder- 
ately low  power  of  magnification  the  epidermal  scales  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  fibre  can  be  readily  discerned,  while  neither  silk  nor 
the  vegetable  fibres  present  this  appearance  (Fig.  n).  The  scales 
are  more  or  less  translucent  in  appearance,  and  permit  of  the 


IS 


THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES 


under  cortical  layer  being  seen  through  them.  The  exact  nature 
and  structure  and  arrangement  of  the  scales  differ  considerably 
with  different  varieties  of  wool.  In  fine  merino  wools,  for  in- 
stance, the  individual  scales  are  in  the  form  of  cylindrical  cusps, 
one  somewhat  overlapping  the  other;  that  is  to  say,  a  single 
scale  completely  surrounds  the  entire  fibre  (Fig.  12,  If).  In  some 
varieties  of  wool,  on  the  other  hand,  two  or  more  scales  occur  in 


FIG.  io.— Wool  Fibres  Deficient  in  Medullary  Cells. 
A,  a  fibre  without  evidence  of  medullary  cells;   B,  a  fibre  showing  isolated  medul- 
lary cells  at  M.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

the  circumference  of  the  fibre  (Fig.  12,  T}.  In  some  cases  the 
edges  of  the  scales  are  smooth  and  straight,  and  this  appears  to 
be  especially  characteristic  of  fine  qualities  of  wool;  the  coarser 
species,  on  the  other  hand,  possess  scales  having  serrated  wavy 
edges.  Usually  such  scales  are  much  broader  than  they  are 
long  and  are  very  thin.  The  length  of  the  free  or  projecting 
edge  of  the  scale  is  also  a  very  variable  factor;  in  some  wools  the 
scale  is  free  from  the  body  of  the  fibre  for  about  one-third  of  the 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  19 

length  of  the  former,  and  in  consequence  the  scale  protrudes  to  a 
considerable  extent;  such  wool  would  be  eminently  suitable 
for  the  preparation  of  material  which  requires  to  be  much  felted 
(Fig.  12,  M).  In  other  wools  the  free  edge  of  the  scale  amounts  to 
almost  nothing,  and  the  separate  members  fit  down  on  one  another 
closely,  and  are  arranged  like  a  series  of  plates.  Wools  of  this 
class  are  more  hair-like  in  texture,  being  stiffer  and  straighter, 


w 


FIG.  ii. — Comparison    of    Wool,    Cotton,    and    Silk    Fibres.     (X5oo.) 

W,  wool  fibre,  showing  marking  of  scales;    C,  cotton;    S,  silk,  showing  irregular 

shreds  of  silk-glue  at  Sh.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

and  not  capable  of  being  readily  felted  (Fig.  13).  The  wool- 
hairs  (the  long,  stiff  fibres  which  have  already  been  mentioned  as 
occurring  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  in  nearly  all  wools  and  also 
known  as  beard-hairs)  usually  possess  this  structure.  The  felt- 
ing quality  of  wool  is  much  increased  by  treatment  with  acid  or 
alkaline  solutions,  or  even  boiling  water,  the  effect  being  to  open 
up  the  scales  to  a  greater  extent,  so  that  they  present  a  much 
larger  free  margin  and  consequently  interlock  more  readily  and 


20  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

firmly.  Woolen  yarns,  and  \voven  materials  made  from  such 
yarns,  felt  much  more  easily  than  worsted  yarns,  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  fibres  of  the  former  lie  in  every  direction  and  the  inter- 
locking of  the  scales  takes  place  more  easily. 

In  some  varieties  of  wool  fibre  the  scales  have  no  free  edge  at 
all,  but  the  sides  fit  tightly  together  with  apparently  no  overlap- 
ping; in  such  fibres  the  surfaces  of  the  scales  are  also  more  or 


FIG    12  — Comparison  of  Different  Varieties  of  Wool.     (>5oc.) 

M,  merino  wool  with  only  a  single  scale  in  circumference  of  fibre;    T,  territory 

wool  with  two  or  more  scales;   C,  coarse  wool  with  numerous  scales 

(Micrograph  by  author.) 

less  concave  (Fig.  14).  This  structure  only  occurs  with  thick, 
coarse  varieties  of  wool.  Frequently  at  the  ends  of  the  wool 
fibre,  where  the  natural  point  is  still  preserved  (as  in  the  case  of 
lamb's  \vool  from  fleeces  which  have  not  been  previously  sheared), 
the  scales  are  more  or  less  rubbed  off  and  the  under  cortical 
layer  becomes  exposed  (Fig.  15,  P);  this  appearance  is  quite  char- 
acteristic of  certain  wools.  In  diseased  fibres  the  epidermal  scales 


WOOL  AMD  HAIR  FIBRES. 


21 


may  also  be  lacking  in  places,  causing  such  fibres  to  be  very 
weak  at  these  points  (Fig.  15,  D). 

In  most  varieties  of  wools  the  scales  of  the  epidermis  may  be 
readily  observed  even  under  rather  low  powers  of  magnification, 
while  under  high  powers  the  individual  scales  may  be  seen  over- 


FIG.  13.  FIG.  14. 

FIG.  13.— Wool  Fibre  with  Plate-like  Scales.     (X340.)     (Hohnel.) 
A,  portion  of  fibre  with  isolated  medullary  cells  at  *,  and  smooth  scales  e  fitting 
together  like  plates;    B,  portion  of  fibre  showing  medullary  cylinder  at  m. 

FIG.  14.— Wool  Fibre  with  Concave  Scales.     (X34Q.)     (Hohnel.) 

m,  medullary  cylinder  consisting  of  several  rows  of  cells;  e,  concave  scales  arranged 

in  a  plate-like  manner. 

lapping  one  another  like  shingles  on  a  roof,  and  showing  pointed, 
thickened  protuberances  at  the  edges.  When  the  fibre  becomes 
more  hair-like  in  nature,  such  as  mohair,  alpaca,  camel-hair,  etc., 
it  is  more  difficult  to  observe  the  individual  scales,  as  these  fuse 
together  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree,  until  the  true  hair  fibre 
is  reached,  which  exhibits  scarcely  any  markings  of  scales  at 


22 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


all  under  ordinary  conditions.  By  treatment  with  ammoniacal 
copper  oxide,  however,  the  interscalar  matter  is  dissolved  away, 
and  even  with  true  hair  the  scaly  nature  of  the  surface  may  be 


FlG.  15. — Wool  Fibres  showing  Absence  of  Epidermal  Scales. 
D,  at  middle  portion  of  fibre,  probably  due  to  disease;    P,  at  point  of  fibre  of 
lamb's  wool.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

observed.     Bowman  gives  the  approximate  comparative  number 
of  scales  per  inch  in  different  varieties  of  wool  as  follows: 


Wool. 


Scales,  per  inch.    Diam.  of  Fibre  (ins.). 


East  Indian 1000 

Chinese 1200 

Lincoln 1400 

Leicester 1450 

Southdown 1500 

Merino 2000 

Saxony 2200 


0.00143 
0.00133 
o . 0009 i 
0.00077 
o . 00080 
0.00055 
0.00050 


According  to  the  measurements  of  Hanausek,  the  size  of  the 
epidermal  scales  on  different  forms  of  hair  fibres  are  as  follows : 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  23 

No.  of  Epidermal 

Fibre.  Scales  per  mm. 

Length  of  Fibre. 

Sheep's  wool,  ordinary 97 

"          "       merino 114 

"          "      Electoral 100 

"          "       Saxony 121 

Angora  wool 53 

White  alpaca 90 

Brown  alpaca 150 

Vicuna  wool 100 

Camel's  wool 90 

The  epidermal  layer  of  scales  imparts  to  the  wool  fibre  its 
characteristic  quality  of  lustre.  Since  the  lustre  of  any  surface 
is  due  to  the  unbroken  reflection  of  light  from  that  surface,  it  may 
be  readily  understood  that  the  smoother  the  surface  of  the  fibre, 
the  more  lustrous  it  will  appear  When  the  epidermal  scales 
are  irregular  and  uneven,  and  have  projecting  points  and  rough- 
ened edges,  the  surface  of  the  fibre  will  naturally  not  be  very 
.smooth  and  uniform,  and  consequently  will  reflect  light  in  only 
a  broken  and  scattered  manner.  Such  fibres  will  not  have  a 
high  degree  of  lustre.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  scales  are 
regular  and  uniform  in  their  arrangement,  and  their  edges  are 
more  or  less  segmented  together  to  form  a  continuous  surface, 
the  fibre  will  be  smooth  and  lustrous.  As  a  rule,  the  coarser  and 
straight er  fibres  are  the  more  lustrous,  as  they  approximate 
more  closely  to  the  structure  of  hair,  which  has  a  smooth  surface. 
The  lustre  of  the  fibre  being  dependent  on  the  polished  surface 
of  the  scales  is  influenced  largely  by  any  condition  which  may 
affect  the  latter.  Treatment  with  chemical  agents,  for  instance, 
which  will  corrode  the  horny  tissue  of  the  scales  will  seriously 
affect  the  lustre,  as  is  evidenced  by  allowing  alkaline  solutions  to 
act  on  lustrous  wool  fibres.  High  temperatures  (and  especially 
dry  heat)  corrodes  the  epidermal  scales  and  shrivels  them  up, 
causing  the  fibre  to  lose  its  lustre.  In  the  various  mechanical 
processes  through  which  the  wool  must  pass  in  the  course  of  its 
manufacture,  the  scales  of  the  fibre  suffer  more  or  less  injury, 
being  torn  apart,  roughened,  and  loosened  from  the  surface.  In 
order  to  minimize  the  extent  of  this  injury  the  wool  is  generally 
oiled,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  fibres  may  be  properly  lubricated. 


24  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

The  rigidity  and  pliability  of  the  wool  fibre  is  also  largely 
conditioned  by  the  nature  of  its  epidermal  scales.  If  these  fit 
over  one  another  loosely  with  considerable  length  of  free  edge, 
the  fibre  will  be  very  pliable  and  plastic,  soft,  and  yielding,  also 
easily  felted.  Whereas,  if  the  scales  fit  closely  against  one  another 
and  have  little  or  no  freedom  of  movement,  the  fibres  will  be  stiff 
and  resistant,  and  not  easily  twisted  together  nor  felted. 

The  cortical  layer,  or  true  fibrous  portion  of  the  fibre,  forms 
the  major  constituent  of  wool.  It  consists  principally  of  more  or 
less  elongated  cells,  and  often  presents  a  distinctly  striated  appear- 
ance, the  striations  being  visible  through  the  translucent  layer 
of  scales.  The  individual  cells  measure  from  0.0014  inch  to  0.0025 
inch  in  length,  and  from  0.00050  inch  to  0.00066  inch  in  diameter, 
hence  are  elliptical  in  form.  The  cells  may  be  disintegrated 
from  one  another  by  a  careful  treatment  with  caustic  alkali.  TQ 
this  cortical  tissue  the  fibre  chiefly  owes  its  tensile  strength  and 
elasticity.  When  the  fibre  is  fine  in  staple,  the  cortical  cells 
exhibit  more  or  less  unevenness  in  their  growth  and  arrangement, 
with  the  result  that  the  fibre  is  contracted  on  one  side  or  the  other, 
giving  rise  to  the  waviness  or  curled  appearance  of  such  wools. 
It  is  best,  perhaps,  to  speak  of  the  wool  being  "  wavy"  rather  than 
"  curled,"  as  the  latter  implies  usually  a  spiral  development  which 
involves  a  twisting  of  the  fibre,  and  in  wool,  as  a  rule,  this  does  not 
occur.  Coarse  wools  seldom  exhibit  this  wavy  structure,  or  only 
to  a  slight  degree,  the  waves  being  long  and  irregular;  some  fine 
stapled  wools,  on  the  other  hand,  possess  short  and  very  regular 
waves.  This  property  of  the  fibre  adds  much  to  its  spinning 
qualities,  and  also  to  the  resiliency  of  the  yarn  or  fabric  into 
which  it  is  manufactured.  Wool-hairs  exhibit  much  less  develop- 
ment of  waves  than  the  true  wool  fibres,  and  the  more  closely  the 
animal  fibres  approximate  to  the  structure  of  ordinary  hair,  the 
less  pronounced  are  the  waves.  Sheep's  wool  is  more  wavy 
than  that  derived  from  allied  species,  such  as  the  various  goats, 
camel,  etc.  Mohair,  for  instance,  exhibits  no  wavy  structure 
at  all.  The  exact  cause  which  determines  the  wavy  quality  of 
wool  is  but  ill-defined;  there  appears,  howrever,  to  be  some  con- 
nection between  the  degree  of  curl,  the  diameter  of  the  fibre, 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  HBRES.  25 

and  the  number  of  scales  per  inch.  The  following  table,  given 
by  Bowman,  shows  the  relation  between  the  number  of  waves  and 
the  diameter  of  the  fibre. 


Wool 


"Waves  Diameter  of 

per  inch.  Fibre  (ins.). 


English  merino 24-30  o .  00064 

Southdown 13-18  0.00078 

"         11-16  o.ooioo 

Irish 7-11  0.00120 

Lincoln. 3-5  0.00154 

Northumberland 2-4  0.00172 

The  waviness  of  the  wool  fibre  may  be  temporarily  removed  by 
\vetting  with  hot  water  and  drying  while  in  the  stretched  con- 
dition. 

In  tensile  strength  and  elasticity,  the  wool  fibre  varies  within 
large  limits,  depending  on  the  breed  and  quality  of  the  sheepr 
and  also  the  diameter  of  the  fibre  and  the  part  of  the  fleece  from 
which  it  was  derived.  The  strength  of  wool,  and  of  animal  hairs 
in  general,  is  due  to  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  fibre.  In  the 
first  place,  the  external  sheath  of  horny  tissue  of  flattened  cells 
which  take  the  form  of  scales,  offers  considerable  resistance  to 
crushing  strains,  and  are  also  locked  rather  firmly  together  in 
the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  fibre;  this  has  a  tendency  to 
resist  any  diminution  in  the  diameter  of  the  fibre  which  would  be 
felt  when  the  latter  is  stretched.  Then,  too,  the  internal  cortical 
cells  of  the  fibre  are  so  arranged  as  to  present  a  very  firm  struc- 
ture, being  firmly  interlaced  together,  consequently  they  offer 
considerable  resistance  to  rupture.  It  has  been  noticed  by  a 
microscopical  examination  of  a  broken  fibre  that  the  cells  them- 
selves are  never  ruptured,  but  only  pulled  apart  from  one  an- 
other; this  is  evidence  that  the  cell- wall  is  of  a  strong  texture. 
The  latter  is  probably  formed  of  a  continuous  tissue  which  is  less 
than  0.0002  inch  in  thickness,  as  under  the  highest  powers  of 
the  microscope  it  exhibits  no  evidence  of  structural  elements. 
Bowman  gives  the  following  table,  which  records  the  average 
results  of  a  number  of  experiments  on  the  strength  and  elas- 
ticity of  the  wool  fibre : 


26 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Wool. 

Tensile 
Strength, 
grams. 

Elasticity, 
per  cent. 

Diameter, 

ins. 

106 
33 
31 
28 

5-9 

3-2 

38'5 
9-7 

36.6 

28.4 

27-3 
27.0 
26.8 

33-5 
27-5 
29.9 
24.2 

0.00332 
0.00181 
0.00164 
0.00149 
o  .  00099 
0.00052 

0.00034 
0.00170 
0.00053 

Alpaca  

It  is  interesting  to  compare  these  figures  of  tensile  strength  for 
equal  cross- sections  of  fibre.  As  the  cross-section  varies  with  the 
square  of  the  diameter,  by  taking  the  ratio  of  the  latter  numbers 
and  multiplying  by  the  tensile  strength,  a  figure  is  obtained  which 
represents  the  tensile  strength  for  equal  diameters  of  fibres.  In 
this  manner  the  following  table  has  been  calculated,  taking  human 
hair  as  the  standard  for  comparison,  as  it  has  the  largest  diameter: 

Human  hair 100 

Lincoln  wool 96.4 

Leicester 119 .9 

Northumberland 130 . 9 

Southdown  wool 62 . 3 

Australian  merino 122.8 

Saxony  merino 224 . 6 

Mohair 136. 2 


Alpaca , 

Cotton  (Egyptian). 


••   358.5 

..     201.8 


It  will  be  noticed  from  this  table  that  Saxony  merino  wool  is 
by  far  the  strongest  of  the  different  grades  of  wool.  It  is  also 
interesting  to  note  that  cotton  is  considerably  stronger  than  the 
majority  of  wools. 

The  medulla,  or  marrow,  of  the  wool  fibre  consists  of  round  or 
slightly  flattened  cells,  usually  somewhat  larger  in  section  than 
those  comprising  the  cortical  layer  (Fig.  7,  C}.  The  size  of  the 
medulla  varies  considerably  in  different  varieties  and  grades  of 
wool,  and  even  shows  large  variations  in  fibres  from  the  same 
fleece.  At  times  it  may  occupy  as  much  as  one-quarter  to  one- 
third  of  the  entire  diameter  of  the  fibre;  and  again,  it  may  be 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  27 

reduced  to  almost  a  line,  or  even  disappear  completely.  Wool- 
hairs  exhibit  the  presence  of  a  distinct  medulla  more  frequently 
than  the  true  wool  fibres.  The  latter  mostly  show  scarcely  any 
inner  structure  at  all,  though  at  times  there  may  be  noticed  isolated 
medullary  markings,  but  usually  the  fibre  is  so  transparent  that 
it  presents  no  markings  at  all.  In  camel-hair,  however,  the  medul- 
lary portion  shows  up  very  distinctly,  in  some  fibres  appear- 
ing as  a  continuous  dark  band  occurring  about  three-fourths  of 
the  width  of  the  fibre,  while  in  other  fibres  it  shows  a  well-defined 
•granular  structure.  In  hairs  of  some  other  animals  the  medullary 
part  exhibits  a  structure  which  is  distinctly  characteristic  of  the 
fibre ;  in  the  hair  of  the  cat,  for  instance,  the  medullary  cells  appear 
in  a  reticulated  form,  and  in  the  hair  of  the  rabbit  they  occur  as  a 
series  of  laminae  very  regularly  superposed  on  each  other.  The 
medullary  cells  frequently  contain  pigment  matter,  either  con- 
tinuously or  in  isolated  cells;  and  this  may  occur  even  hi  fibres 
usually  classified  as  white  wool.  Sometimes  the  pigment  per- 
meates not  only  the  medulla,  but  also  the  cells  of  the  cortical 
layer,  in  which  case  the  fibre  as  a  whole  appears  colored.  To 
this  class  belong  the  variously  colored  wools,  ranging  from  a 
light  brown  to  almost  a  black.  The  hair  of  camels,  goats,  and 
•other  animals  is  also  more  or  less  colored,  and  to  a  much  more 
general  extent  than  sheep's  wool.  The  medulla  may  consist  of  a 
single  series  of  cells,  or  of  several  series  arranged  side  by  side; 
sometimes  these  cells  occur  in  a  discontinuous  and  rather  irregu- 
lar manner,  the  intervening  spaces  of  the  medulla  being  filled 
with  air.  The  function  of  the  medulla  is  to  provide  the  living 
fibre  with  an  inner  canal  for  the  flow  of  juices  whereby  it  receives 
nourishment  for  its  growth.  It  also  adds  much  to  the  porosity 
of  the  fibre,  forming  a  capillary  tube  whereby  the  latter  may  suck 
up  solutions  of  various  kinds,  such  as  dyestuffs,  different  salts, 
etc.,  allowing  these  to  gradually  permeate  through  the  cortical 
layer  as  well.  The  epidermal  layer  of  scales  is  rather  impervious 
to  the  transpiration  of  solutions,  and  only  permits  of  their  en- 
trance into  the  fibre  at  the  joints  of  the  scales,  so  it  may  be  seen 
that  the  medulla  of  the  fibre  becomes  an  important  adjunct  in 
the  chemical  treatment  of  wool  in  the  processes  of  mordanting, 


28  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

dyeing,  and  bleaching.  It  might  also  be  noted,  in  this  connec- 
tion, that  the  epidermal  scales  become  but  slightly,  if  at  all, 
dyed  when  various  coloi  ing-matters  are  applied  to  the  fibre,  but 
remain  clear  and  translucent.  Hence  it  may  be  readily  under- 
stood that  if  two  samples  of  wool  are  dyed  simultaneously,  the 
one  consisting  of  fibres  having  small  and  open  scales,  while  the 
other  has  a  thick  and  highly  resistant  epidermis,  the  resulting 
color  on  the  two  samples  will  have  a  different  quality  or  tone,, 
due  to  the  influence  on  the  latter  of  the  uncolored  and  trans- 
lucent scales.  In  wools  where  this  influence  is  very  marked  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  obtain  rich  and  full  shades  of  color,  due  to- 
the  transparency  and  lustre  of  the  surface,  which  allows  of  con- 
siderable white  light  being  refracted  through  the  fibre  along 
with  the  reflected  color.  This  also  explains  the  well-known  fact 
that  the  longitudinal  surface  of  the  fibre  in  many  cases  presents 
a  different  tone  of  color  than  the  cut  ends,  the  latter  usually  being 
richer  and  deeper  in  tone;  as  may  be  noticed  in  cut-pile  fabrics, 
such  as  occur  in  rugs,  plushes,  etc.  In  some  cases  the  epidermal 
layer,  instead  of  being  highly  translucent,  is  opaque  and  white; 
this  is  true  of  many  varieties  of  coarse  wool-hairs,  and  such  fibres 
as  cow-hair,  etc.  In  such  instances  the  dyed  fibre  will  lack 
liveliness  of  tone  and  appear  rather  dead  and  flat.  The  further 
discussion  of  this  interesting  subject  must  be  dealt  with  in  more 
detail  in  the  study  of  shade  matching.  Attention  is  merely  called 
to  it  at  this  point  in  order  to  emphasize  more  clearly  the  funda- 
mental cause  of  these  differences  in  color  phenomena  as  lying 
in  the  st  ucture  of  the  fibre  itself. 

Frequently,  through  disease  or  other  natural  causes,  the 
medulla  of  the  wool  fibre  is  imperfectly  developed,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  wool  will  not  absorb  solutions  readily,  and  hence 
will  not  be  dyed  (or  mordanted)  at  all,  or  only  slightly.  These 
fibres,  which  are  known  as  kemps,  will  occur  through  the  mass 
of  the  wool  as  undyed  streaks,  and  will  give  the  yarn  or  fabric  a 
speckled  appearance.  Not  only  may  this  condition,  however, 
be  brought  about  by  natural  causes,  but  it  may  at  times  be  the- 
result  of  improper  manipulation  during  manufacturing  processes. 
There  is  a  certain  class  of  wool,  for  instance,  known  in  trade  as 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  29 

pulled  wool;  *  this  is  obtained  from  the  pelts  of  slaughtered  sheep, 
and  is  usually  removed  from  the  skin  by  the  action  of  lime,  the 
fibres  being  pulled  out  by  the  roots.  In  the  process,  the  medulla 
becomes  stopped  up  with  solid  insoluble  particles  of  lime,  which 
is  also  true  of  the  end  pores  of  the  cortical  layer  and  the  joints  of 
the  scales.  As  a  consequence,  the  fibre  is  very  difficult  to  impreg- 
nate with  solutions,  and  will  remain  more  or  less  completely 
undyed.  This  non-porous  character  is  also  enhanced,  perhaps, 
by  the  fact  that  the  fibre  does  not  possess  a  freshly  cut  end,  but 
still  retains  the  root,  which  is  more  or  less  rounded  off  and  closed 
by  the  coagulation  and  hardening  of  the  juices  in  the  hair  follicle. 

The  medulla,  as  a  rule,  is  more  developed  in  beard- hairs  than 
in  wool- hairs,  and  more  in  coarse  grades  of  wool  than  in  the 
finer  qualities.  There  also  appears  to  be  more  or  less  relation 
between  the  breed  of  the  wool  and  the  morphological  charac- 
teristics of  the  medullary  cells,  although  this  is  a  subject  which 
as  yet  has  been  but  little  studied.  At  times  the  medullary  cells 
exhibit  but  little  differentiation  from  those  of  the  cortical  layer, 
and  these  two  portions  of  the  fibre  become  continuous  in  their 
appearance,  that  is  to  say,  no  line  of  demarcation  can  be  drawn 
between  the  medulla  and  the  surrounding  cortical  layer. 

In  length,  the  wool  fibre  varies  between  large  limits,  not  only  in 
different  sheep,  but  also  in  the  same  fleece.  Generally  speaking, 
the  length  may  be  taken  as  being  between  i  and  8  inches.  The 
diameter  of  the  fibre  is  also  very  variable,  even  in  the  same 
fleece,  but  may  be  taken  as  averaging  from  0.0018  to  0.004  inch.f 
According  to  their  length  of  staple,  wool  fibres  are  graded  into 
two  classes:  tops  and  noils.  The  former  includes  the  longer 
stapled  fibres,  which  are  combed  and  spun  into  worsted  yarns,  to 
be  manufactured  into  trouserings,  dress-goods,  and  such  fabrics 
as  are  not  fulled  to  any  extent  in  the  finishing.  The  latter  class 
consists  of  the  short-stapled  fibres,  which  arc  carded  and  spun  into 
woolen  yarns  to  be  used  for  weft  and  all  classes  of  goods  which 

*  This  is  also  known  as  tanners'  wool  and  glovers'  wool. 

f  According  to  Hohnel,  the  diameter  of  sheep's  wool  varies  from  10  to  100  [i 
(the  expression  /*=-nnny  mm.);  and  according  to  Cramer,  the  thickness  of  the 
hairs  from  one  and  the  same  fleece  may  vary  from  12  to  85  fi. 


30  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

are  fulled  more  or  less  in  the  finishing  operations,  where  a  felting 
together  of  the  fibres  is  desired.  On  comparing  worsted  and 
woolen  yarns,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  former  are  fairly  even 
in  diameter  and  the  individual  fibres  lie  more  or  less  parallel 
to  each  other,  whereas  in  woolen  yarns  the  diameter  is  very 
uneven,  and  the  fibres  lie  in  all  manner  of  directions. 

The  quality  of  wool  obtained  from  sheep  depends  very  largely 
on  the  breed,  on  climatic  conditions,  and  nature  of  the  pasturage 
on  which  the  sheep  feed.  Australia  appears  to  possess  the  cli- 
matic conditions  best  adapted  for  wool-growing.*  With  regard 
to  the  nature  of  the  pasturage  it  has  been  found  that  grass  from 
chalky  soils  gives  rise  to  a  coarse  wool,  whereas  that  from  rich, 
loamy  soils  produces  fine  grades  of  wool.f  As  a  rule,  the  sheep 

*  Other  conditions  being  equal,  long  droughty  seasons  in  wool-growing  dis- 
tricts will  cause  the  fibre  to  be  much  shorter  than  otherwise. 

t  Utah  wools,  for  instance,  are  harsh  and  stairy  compared  to  Wyoming  wools. 
This  is  due  to  the  alkali  in  the  soil  in  Utah  and  the  dryness  of  the  climate.  The 
alkali  in  the  soil  and  the  effect  it  has  upon  the  water  which  the  sheep  drink 
have  a  tendency  to  take  the  life  out  of  the  wool  and  weaken  the  staple.  The  more 
close  and  uniform  the  fibres  lie,  the  better  will  be  the  combing  qualities  of  the 
wool.  The  Utah  wools  in  this  respect  are  inferior  to  the  Wyomings,  Idahos, 
and  Montanas,  especially  the  wools  grown  in  southern  Utah.  In  northern  Utah 
the  wools  are  longer  than  in  southern  Utah,  but  there  are  very  few  Utahs  either 
north  or  south  which  are  fit  for  combing.  The  heaviest  shrinkage  wools  gen- 
erally come  from  eastern  Oregon  and  Nevada.  The  degree  of  shrinkage  depends 
to  a  considerable  extent  on  the  season  in  which  the  wools  were  grown.  A  wet 
season  and  long-continued  rains  will  wash  much  dirt  and  dust  out  of  the  wools, 
thus  leaving  them  lighter.  The  lightest  shrinkage  wools  come  from  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  and  the  Blue  Grass  region,  where  medium  wools  are  grown,  where 
the  sheep  are  cleaner,  the  range  better,  and  the  country  hilly,  and  where  com- 
paratively little  sand  and  dirt  work  their  way  into  the  fleece.  The  shrinkage 
of  washed  fleeces  ranges  from  55  to  35  per  cent.  Unwashed  Indiana  wools  shrink 
38  to  43  per  cent.  Missouris  will  shrink  around  43  to  45  per  cent.;  Illinois, 
45  to  47  per  cent.  California  wools  shrink  55  to  72  per  cent.,  depending  on  the 
part  from  which  they  come.  The  heaviest  shrinkage  wools  are  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia, because  of  the  presence  of  more  sand  and  dirt,  and  inferiority  of  the  range. 
Texas  spring  wools  shrink  anywhere  from  64  to  72  per  cent.,  and  the  fall  wools 
58  to  64  per  cent.  Territory  wools  shrink  from  55  up  to  73  per  cent.  Idahos 
on  the  medium  order  will  not  shrink  over  55  per  cent.  Wyoming  wools  on  the 
fine  and  fine  medium  order  shrink  65  to  72  per  cent.  The  Montanas  shrink 
on  the  average  63  to  69  per  cent,  for  fine  and  fine  mediums,  and  57  to  60  per 
cent,  for  mediums.  The  shrinkage  on  Arizona  wools  will  range  from  66  to  73 
per  cent.,  but  they  will  spin  to  finer  counts  than  the  Utah  wools,  and  will  scour 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  31 

which  yield  the  best  qualities  of  wool  give  the  poorest  quality  of 
mutton. 

Unhealthy  conditions  of  the  sheep  almost  always  influence 
the  fibre  during  that  period  of  its  growth.  If  the  sheep,  for 
example,  is  suffering  from  indigestion,  cold,  lack  of  proper  nour- 
ishment, etc.,  the  fleece  during  that  time  will  develop  tender 
fibres;  when  the  sheep  regains  its  normal  condition  of  health,  the 
fibre  becomes  strong  again.  Thus  the  fleece  may  have  tender 
strata  through  it  which  will  considerably  affect  the  fibre  and  its 
uses.  These  tender  spots,  of  course,  render  the  wool  unfit  for 
combing  purposes,  and  it  must  go  into  the  "clothing"  class,  and 
will  consequently  sell  for  less  money,  other  things  being  equal. 
It  is  no  great  injury  to  the  wool,  however,  aside  from  spoiling  it 
for  combing,  as  the  wool,  after  it  has  passed  the  tender  spot,  grows 
fully  as  well  as  before  the  sheep  was  ill.  When  sheep  have  been 
afflicted  with  scab,  the  latter  shows  itself  in  tender  wool  at  the 
bottom  of  the  fibre.  The  scab  leaves  a  pus-like  substance  which 
adheres  to  the  bottom  of  the  fibres  and  dries  there.  Vermin  on 
sheep  have  an  influence  on  the  wool;  these  creatures  leave  dis- 
colorations  on  the  fibre  which  cannot  be  removed  by  scouring. 
The  wool,  being  "off  color,"  does  not  sell  as  well,  and,  moreover, 
the  fibre  is  liable  to  be  tender. 

As  to  the  amount  of  wool  to  be  obtained  from  each  sheep, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  average  yield  is  from  4  to  15  Ibs.,  though 
in  some  South  American  varieties  the  fleece  may  weigh  as  high  as 
30  to  40  Ibs.  With  respect  to  the  variation  in  fibres  derived  from 
different  kinds  of  sheep,  Bowman  gives  the  following  classifica- 
tion: 


out  very  white.  In  this  latter  respect  the  Wyoming  wools  are  superior  to  any 
other  grown  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  shortest  wools  grown  in  America 
are  from  California  and  Texas;  they  are  used  principally  for  felts  and  hats, 
though  they  can  also  be  mixed  in  certain  proportions  with  clothing  wool.  As 
the  Territory  wools  are  grown  mostly  in  dry  climates,  they  will  gain  somewhat 
in  weight  on  being  shipped  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  stored  for  a  few  months. 
Utah  wools  will  gain  about  i  per  cent.,  Montana  wools  about  f  per  cent.,  and 
Wyoming  wools  about  i  per  cent.  The  wools  from  Ohio  and  other  eastern  States 
will  not  gain  anything;  in  fact,  will  sometimes  show  a  slight  shrinkage.  (Ameri- 
can Wool  and  Cotton  Reporter.) 


3 2  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

(1)  Those  sheep  the  fibres  of  whose  wool  most  nearly  approach 
to  a  true  hair,  the  epidermal  scales  being  most  horny  and  attached 
most  firmly  to  the  cortical  structure.     This  class  includes  all  the 
lustrous  varieties  of  wool,  besides  alpaca  and  mohair. 

(2)  Those  where  the  epidermal  scales,  though  more  numerous 
than  in  the  first  class,  are  less  horny  in  structure  and  less  adherent 
to  the  cortical  substance  of  the  fibre.     This  class  includes  most 
of  the  middle- wooled  sheep  and  half-breeds. 

(3)  Those  where  the  characteristics  of  true  wool  are  most 
highly  developed,  such  as  suppleness  of  fibre  and  fineness  of 
texture,  the  epidermal  scales  being  attached  to  the  cortical  sub- 
stance through  the  smallest  part  of  their  length.     This  class 
includes  all  the  finest  grades  of  sheep,  such  as  the  merino  and 
crosses  with  it. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  CHEMICAL  NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOL 
AND  HAIR  FIBRES. 

i.  Chemical  Constitution. — In  its  chemical  constitution  wool 
is  closely  allied  to  hair,  horn,  feathers,  and  other  epidermal  tissues. 
A  distinction  must  be  made  between  the  fibre  proper  and  the 
raw  fibre  as  it  comes  from  the  fleece.  In  the  latter  condition  it 
contains  a  large  amount  of  dirt,  grease,  and  dried-up  sweat 
which  have  first  to  be  removed  by  the  scouring  process  before 
the  pure  fibre  is  obtained.  Reserving  these  impurities  for  a 
further  discussion  which  does  not  concern  us  at  this  point,  and 
discussing  only  the  fibre  itself,  it  has  been  found  to  consist  of 
five  chemical  elements;  namely,  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen, 
nitrogen,  and  sulphur.  Nitrogen  is  an  ingredient  common  to 
both  wool  and  silk,  but  sulphur  is  distinctly  characteristic  of  wool 
and  hair  fibres.  To  show  the  average  amount  of  pure  fibre 
to  be  obtained  from  raw  fleece  wool,  the  following  analysis  by 
Chevreul  of  a  merino  wool  is  given : 

Per  Cent. 

Earthy  matter  deposited  by  washing  the  wool  in  water 26.06 

Suint  or  yolk  soluble  in  cold  distilled  water 32 . 74 

Neutral  fats  soluble  in  ether 8.57 

Earthy  matters  adhering  to  the  fat i .  40 

Wool  fibre 31.23 


These  figures  are  based  on  wool  dried  at  100°  C.;  if  corrected 
for  air-dry  wool  containing  14  per  cent,  of  moisture,  this  would 
give  only  about  27.5  per  cent,  of  pure  fibre.  Of  course,  the 

33 


34  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

amount  of  fibre  will  vary  considerably  in  different  qualities  and 
samples  of  wools,  but  this  figure  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average. 

The  presence  of  nitrogen  in  wool  is  readily  made  evident  by 
simply  burning  a  small  sample  of  the  fibre,  when  the  character- 
istic empyreumatic  odor  of  nitrogenous  animal  matter  will  be 
observed.  By  heating  wool  in  a  small  combustion  test-tube  it 
will  be  noticed  that  ammonia  is  among  the  gaseous  products 
evolved,  and  can  be  tested  for  in  the  usual  manner.  The  pres- 
ence of  sulphur  in  wool  can  be  shown  by  dissolving  a  sample  of 
the  fibre  in  a  solution  of  sodium  plumbite  (obtained  by  dissolving 
lead  oxide  in  sodium  hydrate),  when  a  brown  coloration  will  be 
observed,  due  to  the  formation  of  lead  sulphide.  On  adding 
hydrochloric  acid  to  the  solution  and  heating,  the  odor  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  v\ill  be  distinctly  noticed.  The  application 
of  this  test  to  show  the  presence  of  sulphur  in  wool  is  sufficient  to 
discriminate  chemically  between  that  fibre  and  those  consisting 
of  silk  or  cotton,  and  also  to  detect  wocl  in  admixture  with  other 
fibres.  The  older  methods  of  hair-dyeing  were  based  on  this 
same  reaction,  solutions  of  soluble  lead  salts,  such  as  sugar  of 
lead,  being  applied  to  the  hair,  with  the  result  that  lead  sulphide 
would  be  formed  and  cause  a  dark  brown  coloration.  The  use 
of  such  preparations,  however,  is  dangerous,  as  they  are  liable  to 
cause  lead -poisoning. 

The  presence  of  sulphur  in  wool  may  at  times  be  the  cause  of 
certain  defects  in  the  dyeing  process.  In  neutral  or  alkaline 
baths,  if  lead  is  present,  the  color  obtained  on  the  fibre  will  be 
more  or  less  affected  by  the  lead  sulphide  formed  on  the  wool,  and 
serious  stains  may  be  the  result.  The  presence  of  sulphuric 
acid,  however,  prevents  this,  and  no  staining  of  the  fibre  takes 
place.  Stains  are  sometimes  produced  when  wool  is  mordanted 
with  stannous  chloride,  as  in  the  dyeing  of  cochineal  scarlets,  due 
to  the  formation  of  stannous  sulphide.  Occasionally  woolen 
printed  gcods  exhibit  brownish  stains  on  the  white  or  light- 
colored  portions  after  being  steamed.  These  may  be  due  to  slight 
traces  of  copper  or  lead  being  deposited  on  the  cloth  during  its 
manipulation  and  passage  through  the  machines,  and  these  metals 
v/hen  the  wool  is  steamed  form  dark  colored  sulphides  which  cause 


WOOL  AND  HAIR   FIBRES.  35 

the  stains.  By  locally  applying  a  weak  solution  of  hydrogen 
peroxide  such  discolorations  may  be  removed  without  injury 
to  the  printed  color. 

Chevreul  recognized  the  fact  that  in  certain  dyeing  operations 
it  was  necessary  to  remove  the  sulphur  from  wool  as  far  as  possible 
in  order  to  obtain  the  best  results.  He  accomplished  this  by 
steeping  the  wool  in  milk  of  lime  and  afterwards  in  a  weak  bath 
of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  finally  washing. 

The  amount  of  sulphur  existing  in  wool  does  not  appear  to  be 
a  very  constant  factor,  but  varies  in  different  samples  of  wool 
from  0.8  to  4  per  cent.*  The  manner  in  which  the  sulphur  exists 
in  the  molecular  structure  of  the  fibre  is  by  no -means  clear,  as 
the  majority  of  it  is  readily  removed  without  any  apparent  struc- 
tural modification  of  the  fibre  itself.  According  to  Chevreul 
the  amount  of  sulphur  in  wool  was  reduced  to  0.46  per  cent,  by 
several  treatments  with  lime-water.  Treatment  with  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  caustic  soda  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  disinte- 
grate the  f-bre  (see  p.  46)  will  remove  as  much  as  84.5  per  cent, 
of  the  sulphur  originally  present  in  the  wool.  On  a  sample  of 
wool  containing  3.42  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  treatment  in  this  man- 
ner left  only  0.53  per  cent,  of  sulphur  in  the  fibre.  This  would 
appear  to  indicate  that  the  sulphur  is  not  a  structural  constituent 
of  the  wool  fibre.f  The  fact,  however,  that  the  sulphur  present 
is  not  all  removed  by  even  such  severe  treatment  as  described 
would  also  serve  to  indicate  that  this  element  may  exist  in  wool 
in  two  forms,  the  one  an  ultimate  constituent  of  the  fibre,  and 
the  other,  and  major  part,  as  a  more  loosely  combined  compound. 
The  fact  that  the  amount  of  sulphur  naturally  present  in  wool  is 

*  Wool  is  similar  to  other  albuminoids  in  that  it  contains  a  relatively  small 
though  a  widely  fluctuating  amount  of  sulphur.  The  following  sulphur  com- 
pounds have  been  isolated  from  the  decomposition  products  of  the  albuminoids: 
Cystin,  cystein,  thiolactic  acid,  thioglycollic  acid,  ethyl  sulphide,  ethyl  mercap- 
tan,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  diethyl-thetin. 

t  The  presence  of  sulphuric  or  sulphurous  acids  has  formerly  never  been 
observed  in  the  decomposition  products  of  albuminoids  and  this  led  to  the  opinion 
that  the  albumin  molecule  did  not  contain  sulphur  in  combination  with  oxygen. 
Raikow  (Chem.  Zeit.,  1905,  page  900),  however,  finds  that  when  purified,  un- 
bleached wool  is  treated  with  phosphoric  acid  considerable  quantities  of  sul- 
phurous acid  are  evolved. 


36  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

by  no  means  constant  would  also  tend  to  support  this  view;  as 
would  also  the  fact  that  the  major  portion  of  the  sulphur  is  so 
readily  spilt  off  to  form  metallic  sulphides.  On  dissolving  wool 
in  boiling  caustic  soda,  it  does  not  appear  that  all  of  the  sulphur 
is  converted  into  sodium  sulphide,  as  only  about  80  per  cent,  of 
it  can  be  obtained  as  hydrogen  sulphide  when  the  caustic  soda 
solution  is  treated  with  acid.  Probably  the  remainder  of  the 
sulphur  exists  in  the  wool  as  a  sulphonic  acid,  or  some  compound 
of  a  similar  nature. 

In  its  chemical  nature  wool  appears  to  be  a  proteoid,  known  as 
keratin.  As  its  constituents  are  not  rigidly  constant  in  their 
proportions,  we  cannot  assign  to  wool  a  definite  chemical  for- 
mula.* On  an  average,  its  composition  may  be  taken  as 
follows: 

Carbon ......  50 

Hydrogen , » .  7 

Oxygen 26-22 

Nitrogen 15-1? 

Sulphur 2-  4 

*  Keratin,  free  from  ash,  water,  and  melanin,  on  hydrolysis  gave  the  follow- 
ing amounts  of  monamino-acids: 

Keratin  from  Keratin  from 

Horse-hair,  Goose-feathers, 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Glycin 4.7  2.6 

Alanin 1.5  1.8 

Amino-valeric  acid 0.9  0.5 

Leucin 7.1  8.0 

Pyrolidin-2-carboxylic  acid 3.4  3.5 

Aspartic  acid 0.3  i .  i 

Glutamic  acid 3.7  2.3 

Tyrosin 3.2  3.6 

Serin 0.6  0.4 

(Abderhalden,  Zeit.  physiol.  Chem.,  vol.  46,  p.  31.1 

According  to  the  tables  of  Cohnheim,  the  percentages  of  known  cons:  ^  e.ns 
in  the  keratin  from  hair  are  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Leucin. 14 

Glutaminic  acid 12 

Aspartic  acid not  determined 

Cystin. 13.92 

Tyrosin 3 

Ammonia large  amount 


WOOL   AND  HAIR  FIBRES. 


37 


Bowman  gives  the  following  analyses  of  four  different  grades  of 
English  wool: 


Constituent. 

Lincoln 
Wool. 

Irish 
Wool. 

Northum- 
*$Sd 

South- 
down 
Wool. 

Carbon  

52.0 
6.9 
18.1 
20.3 

2-5 
0.2 

49.8 

:7-2 

19.1 
19.9 

3-° 

I  .0 

50.8 
7.2 
18.5 
21.2 
2-3 

S1-^ 

6.0 

17-8 

20.2 

3-8 

Oxygen.  

These  analyses  were  made  of  wool  which  had  been  purified  by 
extraction  with  water,  alcohol,  and  ether. 

The  continued  action  of  boiling  water  appears  to  decompose 
the  wool  fibre  to  a  certain  extent,  as  both  ammonia  and  hydrogen 
sulphide  may  be  detected  in  the  gases  evolved.* 

By  heating  wool  to  a  temperature  of  130°  C.  with  water  under 
pressure,  the  fibre  appears  to  become  completely  disorganized, 
and  on  drying  may  be  rubbed  into  a  fine  powder.  At  higher 
temperature  the  fibre  is  completely  dissolved.  Based  on  this  fact, 
Knecht  has  proposed  a  method  for  the  carbonization  of  wool  in 
mixed  woolen  and  silk  goods,  for  the  purpose  of  recovering  the 
silk,  as  the  latter  is  not  materially  affected  by  this  treatment.! 
The  wool  fibre  as  a  whole  does  not  appear  to  be  a  homogeneous 
chemical  compound;  instead  of  being  a  simple  molecular  body 
to  which  a  def  nite  formula  might  be  given,  it  is  doubtless  com- 
posed of  several  chemically  distinct  substances.  This  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  the  proximate  constituents  of  wool  are 
by  no  means  constant  in  their  amount;  furthermore,  certain  of  its 
constituents  are  in  part  removed  by  simply  boiling  the  fibre  in 
water  without  a  structural  disorganization  taking  place.  The 
sulphur  content  is  especially  liable  to  fluctuation,  and  is  the  most 


*  The  soluble  decomposition  products  of  wool  produced  by  boiling  with 
water  show  all  the  characteristic  properties  of  the  peptones.  Suida  suggests 
that  this  action  of  boiling  water  on  wool  may  account  for  the  lack  of  fastness 
to  rubbing  often  noticed  with  basic  colors  on  wool. 

t  This  method,  though  theoretically  possible,  does  not  have  any  practical 
value. 


38  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

readily  removed  of  the  chemical  elements  of  which  the  fibre  is 
composed;  in  fact,  so  easily  is  some  of  the  sulphur  removed  as  such 
by  various  solvents,  that  it  would  seem  to  indicate  that  this  con- 
stituent existed  in  wool  either  in  the  free  condition  or  in  a  com- 
pound of  exceedingly  unstable  character. 

Schuetzenberger,  by  decomposing  pure  wool  fibre  by  heating 
with  a  solution  of  barium  hydrate  at  170°  C.,  obtained  the  fol- 
lowing decomposition  products: 

Per  Cent. 

Nitrogen  (evolved  as  ammonia) 5 . 25 

Carbonic  acid  (separated  as  barium  carbonate) 4. 27 

Oxalic  acid  (separated  as  barium  oxalate) 5.72 

Acetic  acid  (by  distillation  and  titration) 3 .  20 

Pyrrol  and  volatile  products i  to  i .  -,o 

fC    47-85 

Proximate  composition  of  fixed  residue,  containing  leu-  J   H      7 . 69 
cin,  tyrosin,  and  other  volatile  products i  X    1 2 . 63 

L0    31.83 

Williams  has  shown  that  by  distilling  wool  with  strong  caustic 
potash  a  large  amount  of  ammonia  was  obtained  in  the  distillate, 
together  with  butylamin  and  amylamin.  Dry  distillation  of 
wool  yields  an  oil  of  a  very  disagreeable  odor,  probably  consist- 
ing of  various  sulphuretted  bases;  also  a  considerable  amount 
of  pyrrol  and  hydrogen  sulphide  gas,  together  with  a  small  amount 
of  carbon  disulphide,  and  traces  of  various  oily  bases. 

The  fatty  and  mineral  matters  present  on  the  raw  wool  fibre 
consist  on  the  one  hand  of  wool  grease  derived  from  the  fatty 
glands  surrounding  the  hair-follicle  in  the  skin,  and  on  the  other 
hand  of  dried-up  perspiration  from  the  sudorific  glands  in  the 
skin.  The  wool  grease  is  mostly  to  be  found  as  the  external 
coating  on  the  fibre  *  which  serves  to  protect  it  from  mechanical 
injury  and  felting  while  in  the  growing  fleece.f  There  is  also  a 

*  The  statement  made  in  some  text-books  that  raw  wool  when  left  in  the 
greasy  condition  is  not  attacked  by  moths  is  erroneous.  The  personal  experi- 
ence of  the  author  has  proved  that  raw  wool  is  as  liable  to  the  depredations  of 
insects  as  washed  and  scoured  wool. 

"j"  Cotted  fleeces  are  those  in  which  the  fibres  have  grown  in  and  amongst  each 
other  on  the  sheep's  body,  so  that  they  form  a  more  or  less  perfect  mat  of  wool. 
These  mats  are  hard  or  soft  according  to  the  extent  to  which  the  matting  process 
has  been  carried  on.  Cotted  fleeces  occur  mostly  in  sheep  which  have  been 
housed;  they  are  seldom  found  in  the  territories  where  the  sheep  run  on  the  range 


WOOL   AMD  HAIR  FIBRES.  39 

small  amount  of  oily  matter  contained  in  the  medullary  intercellu- 
lar structure  of  the  fibre  which  appears  to  have  the  function  of 
acting  as  a  lubricant  for  the  inner  portion  of  the  fibre,  thus  pre- 
serving its  pliability  and  elasticity.  Wool  grease  does  not  appear 
to  be  a  simple  compound,  but  evidently  consists  of  several  oils 
and  wax-like  compounds. 

Its  chief  constituent  is  cholesterol,  which  appears  to  be  one  of 
the  higher  monatomic  alcohols,  and  is  not  a  glyceride.  Analysis 
shows  it  to  have  the  formula  C26H43OH.  It  is  a  solid  wax-like 
substance  which  very  readily  emulsifies  in  water.  Associated  with 
cholesterol  there  is  also  an  isomeric  body  called  isocholesterol. 
Besides  these  solid  waxes,  wool  grease  also  contains  two  fats 
which  have  been  studied  by  Chevreul  to  some  extent.  These 
are  described  as  follows: 

(a)  Stearerin,  a  neutral  solid  fat,  melting  at  60°  C. ;   contains 
neither  nitrogen  nor  sulphur;    does  not   emulsify  with  boiling 
water,  but  emulsifies  without  saponification  when  boiled   with 
caustic  potash  and  water;   it  is  soluble  in  1000  parts  of  alcohol 
at  15-5°  C. 

(b)  Elairerin,   a  neutral  fat  melting  at  15.5°  C.;    also  free 
from  nitrogen   and   sulphur;    it   emulsifies   with  boiling   water, 
and  is  saponified  with  caustic  potash;  it  is  soluble  in  143  parts  of 
alcohol  at  i5.5°C. 

The  dried-up  perspiration  adhering  to  the  raw- wool  fibre 
is  also  called  suint.  It  consists  principally  of  the  potash  salts 
of  various  fatty  acids,  and  it  is  soluble  in  water,  wherein  it  differs 
from  wool  grease.  On  extraction  with  water,  suint  will  yield  a 
dry  residue  of  about  140  to  180  Ibs.  for  1000  Ibs.  of  raw  wool. 
This  on  ignition  will  give  70  to  90  Ibs.  of  potassium  carbonate 
and  5  to  6  Ibs.  of  potassium  sulphate  and  chloride,  so  that  the 

and  are  more  exposed  and  hardy.  Cotted  fleeces  indicate  a  low  degree  of  vitality. 
and  many  are  to  be  found  in  fleece  wool  from  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
They  may  be  caused  by  sickness  or  a  low  state  of  the  blood,  or  they  may  be  found 
in  an  old  sheep  which  is  giving  out  or  is  run  down,  which  contributes  to  the  frowsy 
condition  of  the  wool.  Cotted  fleeces  are  unfit  for  combing  purposes,  as  they 
have  to  be  torn  apart,  and  frequently  they  are  so  dense  and  hard  that  the  fibres 
can  only  be  pulled  apart  by  the  use  of  special  machinery.  Badly  cotted  fleeces 
are  used  frequently  for  braid  purposes. 


40  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

amount  of  potash  salts  to  be  derived  from  raw  unwashed  wool 
may  be  taken  to  be  about  10  per  cent,  on  the  weight  of  the  wool. 

Besides  the  mineral  matter  existing  in  the  soluble  suint,  there 
is  also  a  small  amount  of  mineral  matter  which  appears  to  form  an 
essential  constituent  of  the  fibre  itself.*  It  is  left  as  an  ash  when 
wool  is  ignited,  and  amounts  on  an  average  to  about  i  per  cent., 
the  majority  of  which  is  soluble  in  water  and  consists  of  the  alka- 
line sulphates.  The  following  analysis  by  Bowman  shows  the 
typical  composition  of  the  ash  of  Lincoln  wool: 

Per  Cent. 

Potassium  oxide 31.1 

Sodium  oxide 8.2 

Calcium  oxide 16.9 

Aluminium  oxide  1 
Ferric  oxide          J 

Silica 5.8 

Sulphuric  anhydride 20.5 

Carbonic  acid 4.2 

Phosphoric  acid trace 

Chlorin trace 

Sheep's  wool  is  nearly  always  white  in  color,  though  sometimes 
it  may  occur  «in  the  natural  colors  of  gray,  browrn,  or  black.  The 
coloring-matter  in  wrool  appears  to  withstand  the  action  of  alkalies 


*  Arsenic  appears  to  be  present  in  nearly  all  samples  of  wool,  even  in  the 
natural  state.  The  arsenic  is  generally  derived  from  the  dips  to  which  the  sheep 
are  subjected  even  the  wool  from  a  lamb  whose  mother  has  been  dipped  a  con- 
siderable time  before  the  lamb's  birth  will  show  distinct  traces  of  arsenic.  Thorpe 
gives  the  following  figures  for  the  amounts  of  arsenic  in  woolen  materials: 

Arsenious  Oxide, 

Mgms.  per  Gram  of 

Material. 

Flannel  from  natural  wool o .  005-0 . 009 

White  Berlin  wool o .  037 

Cream  flannel o .  004 

Welsh  flannel o .  015 

Vest  wool  (undyed).  . .    o .  01 1 

Linen  (white) free 

Silk  (undyed) o.ooi 

Wool  from  lamb  (mother  treated  with  arsenical  dip).  .    0.0005 
Wool  from  lamb  (mother  dipped  shortly  before  birth  of 

the  lamb) 0.019 

Wool  from  ewe  (treated  with  carbolic  dip  15  months 

previously) o .  047 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  41 

and  acids,  though  it  is  not  especially  permanent  toward  light.  It 
appears  to  be  distributed  in  the  fibre  in  quite  a  different  manner 
from  that  of  the  artificially  applied  dyes.  The  natural  coloring- 
matter  appears  to  be  contained  particularly  in  the  cells  of  the 
cortical  layer  and  the  marrow  in  a  granular  form,  and  to  occur  to 
a  greater  extent  in  the  medullary  than  in  the  cortical  cells.  In 
fibres  which  are  only  slightly  colored  the  walls  of  the  cells  are 
almost  colorless;  though  when  the  fibre  becomes  very  strongly 
colored  the  cell-walls  also  appear  to  be  impregnated  with  the 
coloring-matter.  In  wools  which  have  been  dyed,  however,  the 
cell-walls  are  nearly  always  uniformly  colored,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  medulla  of  the  fibre  becomes  less  pronounced;  whereas, 
with  naturally  colored  wools,  the  medulla  is  usually  rendered  more 
distinct  through  the  deposit  of  coloring-matter. 

2.  Chemical  Reactions. — In  its  chemical  reactions  wool  ap- 
pears to  exhibit  the  characteristics  both  of  an  acid  *  and  a  base, 
and  no  doubt  it  contains  an  amido  acid  in  its  composition.  The 
presence  of  an  amido  group  is  evidenced  by  the  formation  of 
ammonia  as  one  of  the  decomposition  products  of  wool,  also  by 
the  strong  affinity  of  wool  for  the  acid  dyestuffs,  or  even  of  its 
ability  to  combine  with  acids  in  general. 

Schuetzenberger  has  shown  that  the  products  of  the  hydrolysis 
of  wool  by  baryta-water  are  analogous  to  those  of  albuminoids 
containing  imido  groups;  the  experiments  of  Prud'homme  and 
Flick  also  indicate  the  presence  of  imido  rather  than  amido 
groups  in  wool.  The  fact  that  wool  absorbs  nitrous  acid,  and 
combines  with  phenols,  which  is  supposed  to  indicate  the  pres- 
ence of  amido  groups,  may  be  explained  by  the  formation  of 
nitrosamines  with  the  imido  groups,  which  would  also  yield  col- 
ored derivatives  with  phenols. 

*  The  acid  nature  of  wool  accounts  for  the  possibility  of  the  formation  cf 
compounds  of  the  fibre  with  various  metallic  salts,  alkalies,  and  metallic  oxides, 
and  therefore  for  the  difference  in  behavior  in  dyeing  between  wools  which  have 
been  scoured  with  alkaline  carbonates  or  treated  with  metallic  salts  or  hard  water 
and  wool  which  has  not  had  its  acid  groups  saturated  in  this  way.  It  also  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  different  wools  require  the  addition  of  different  amounts  of  acid 
to  the  dye-bath  to  give  the  same  effect.  (See  experiments  of  Gelmo  and  Suida, 
Ber.  Akad.  Wissenschajten,  May,  1905.) 


42  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

The  coefficient  of  acidity,  which  is  a  figure  meaning  the  num- 
ber of  milligrams  of  caustic  potash  neutralized  by  one  gram  of 
substance,  has  been  determined  for  wool,  together  with  a  number 
of  other  albuminoids,  as  follows: 

Wool 57.0         Albumin 20.9 

Silk 143-0         Gelatin 28.4 

Globulin 101 . 5 

Although  the  amount  of  acid  absorbed  and  neutralized  by  wool 
may  be  thus  quantitatively  determined,  the  amount  of  alkali 
absorbed  cannot  be  so  obtained,  as  wool,  though  it  absorbs  alka- 
lies, does  not  neutralize  them.* 

By  treatment  with  concentrated  solutions  of  caustic  soda 
(80°  Tw.)  wool  absorbs  about  50  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  sodium 
hydrate  from  solution.  Nor  can  this  alkali  be  totally  removed 
from  the  wool  by  subsequent  washing  with  water  alone,  but 
requires  a  treatment  with  acid  for  complete  neutralization.  Wool 
so  treated  exhibits  a  lessened  affinity  for  basic  dyes,  showing  a 
probable  neutralization  to  a  greater  or  lesser  extent  of  its  acid 
component. 

The  amido  acid  of  keratin  has  received  the  name  of  lanu- 
ginic  acid,  and  has  been  prepared  by  dissolving  purified  wool 
in  a  strong  solution  of  barium  hydrate,  precipitating  the  barium 
by  means  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  after  filtering,  treating  the 
•liquid  v.ith  lead  acetate,  whereby  the  lead  salt  is  obtained.  This 
is  decomposed  by  means  of  hydrogen  sulphide,  and  the  lanuginic 
acid  obtained,  after  evaporation,  as  a  dirty-yellow  substance 
Its  solution  in  water  yields  colored  lakes  with  the  acid  and  basic 
dyestuffs,  and  also  with  the  various  mordants. 

According  to  Knecht,  lanuginic  acid  possesses  the  following 
properties:  It  is  soluble  in  water,  sparingly  so  in  alcohol,  and 
insoluble  in  ether.  Its  aqueous  solution  yields  highly  colored 
precipitates  with  the  acid  and  basic  dyestuffs;  tannic  acid  and 

*  Wool  which  has  been  treated  with  a  dilute  solution  of  caustic  alkali  appar- 
ently shows  no  difference  from  untreated  wool  in  its  dyeing  properties  with  re- 
spect to  acid  and  basic  dyes.  That  alkali  has  been  absorbed  by  the  wool,  how- 
ever, is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  has  an  increased  attraction  for  such  dyes  as 
Benzopurpurin  and  Bordeaux,  which  only  dye  wool  from  a  slightly  alkaline  bath. 


WOOL   AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  43 

TDichromate  of  potash  also  give  precipitates.  The  following 
mordants  in  the  presence  of  sodium  acetate  also  give  precipitates: 
alum,  stannous  chloride,  copper  sulphate,  ferric  chloride,  ferrous 
sulphate,  chrome  alum,  silver  nitrate,  and  platinum  chloride.' 
Lanuginic  acid  exhibits  all  the  properties  of  a  proteoid,  and  may 
therefore  be  classed  among  the  albuminoids ;  it  is  soluble  in 
•water  at  all  temperatures,  and  its  solution  is  not  coagulated. 
With  Millon's  reagent  and  with  the  double  compound  of  phos- 
phoric and  tungstic  acids,  it  shows  the  characteristic  albuminoid 
reactions.  Knecht  recommends  the  use  of  a  solution  of  wool  in 
barium  hydrate  for  the  purpose  of  animalizing  vegetable  fibres. 
Cotton  so  treated  is  capable  of  being  dyed  with  acid  and  basic 
dyestuffs. 

When  heated  to  100°  C.,  lanuginic  acid  becomes  soft  and 
plastic,  and  the  majority  of  its  colored  lakes  also  melt  at  this 
temperature.  Knecht  gives  the  folio  whig  analysis  of  lanuginic 
acid: 

Per  Cent 

Carbon 41 . 61 

Hydrogen 7.31 

Nitrogen.  .  r 10.26 

Sulphur 3 . 35 

Oxygen 31 .44 

93-97 

Though  lanuginic  acid  contains  a  notable  amount  of  sulphur  in 
its  composition,  it  is  not  blackened  by  treatment  with  sodium 
plumbite. 

When  treated  with  dilute  acids,  the  wool  fibre  does  not  appear 
to  undergo  any  appreciable  change;  although,  from  the  fact  that 
acids  are  very  readily  absorbed  by  wool  and  very  tenaciously  held 
by  it,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  chemical  combination 
takes  place  between  the  fibre  and  the  acid.  •  It  can  be  shown,  for 
example,  that  if  wool  be  treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,*  all  of 

*  Wool  that  has  been  treated  with  warm  dilute  solutions  of  sulphuric  acid 
not  only  shows  an  increased  affinity  for  acid  colors,  but  also  a  much  decreased 
affinity  for  basic  colors.  Treatment  of  wool  with  cold  aqueous  or  alcoholic  solu- 
tions of  sulphuric  acid,  however,  followed  by  washing  with  cold  water,  appears 
to  diminish  the  affinity  of  the  fibre  for  acid  colors,  from  which  it  is  concluded 


44  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

the  acid  cannot  again  be  extracted  by  boiling  in  water  until  the 
wash-waters  are  perfectly  neutral;  and  wool  thus  prepared  has 
the  power  of  combining  with  the  various  acid  colors  without  the 
necessity  of  adding  any  acid  to  the  dye-bath.  It  is  also  true  that 
if  wool  which  has  been  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  is  boiled  in 
water,  ammonium  sulphate  is  to  be  found  in  the  solution,  showing 
that  some  chemical  action  has  probably  taken  place  between  the 
acid  and  some  basic  constituent  of  the  wool  fibre.  Hydrochloric 
acid  acts  much  in  the  same  manner  as  sulphuric  acid,  although 
the  amount  permanently  absorbed  by  the  fibre  is  quite  small, 
most  of  the  acid  being  removed  by  boiling  water.  Chromic  acid 
is  also  absorbed  in  like  manner,  and  no  doubt  the  usefulness  of 
bichromates  as  mordants  for  wool  depends  somewhat  on  the 
chemical  combination  between  the  fibre  and  the  chromic  acid. 
With  nitric  acid  wool  behaves  somewhat  differently,  for  unless 
the  acid  be  very  dilute  and  the  temperature  low,  the  fibre  will 
assume  a  yellow  color,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  formation  of 
xanthoproteic  acid.  Formerly  this  yellow  color  was  supposed  to 
be  due  to  the  formation  of  picric  acid,  but  this  view  is  erroneous. 
Nitric  acid  has  a  similar  effect  on  the  skin,  the  yellow  stains  which 
it  produces  being  a  subject  of  common  experience.  If  the 
strength  of  the  acid  is  below  4°  Tw.,  the  yellow  coloration  on 
wool  is  not  very  marked,  and  in  this  manner  nitric  acid  has  been 
largely  employed  as  a  stripping  agent,  especially  for  shoddies. 

Richards  has  shown  that  by  the  action  of  nitrous  acid,  wool  is 
diazotized  in  a  manner  similar  to  an  amido  compound,  and  may 
be  developed  subsequently  in  an  alkaline  solution  of  a  phenol, 
giving  rise  to  quite  a  variety  of  shades.  When  wool  is  treated 
in  the  dark  with  an  acid  solution  of  sodium  nitrite  (6  per  cent.) 
it  quickly  acquires  a  pale-yellow  color,  rapidly  changing  on  expo- 
sure to  light.  Wool  prepared  in  this  manner  is  turned  brown  by 

that  the  acid  is  fixed  in  a  somewhat  different  way  than  when  the  wool  is  heated 
with  the  acid  solution.  Acidified  wool  also  shows  an  increased  power  of  dyeing 
alizarin  colors  direct.  Other  acids  have  about  the  same  effect  on  wool  as  sul- 
phuric acid,  only  in  the  case  of  acetic  acid  it  is  necessary  to  add  the  acid  directly 
to  the  dye-bath  in  order  to  hinder  the  fixation  of  basic  colors  or  increase  the  ab- 
sorption of  acid  colors.  (See  Gelmo  and  Suida,  Ber.  Akad.  Wissenschajten, 
May,  1905.) 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  45 

toiling  water,  and  caustic  soda  effects  the  same  change,  the  color 
becoming  yellow  again  on  treatment  with  acids.  Stannous  chlo- 
ride in  a  warm  solution  discharges  the  brown  color.  Diazotized 
wool  appears  to  have  an  increased  attraction  for  basic  dyes  and  a 
lessened  affinity  for  the  acid  dyes.  Exposure  to  light  bleaches 
diazotized  wool,  which  is  then  turned  orange  by  alkalies,  and 
not  brown.  The  following  colors  may  be  obtained  by  treating 
diazotized  wool  with  various  phenols  in  alkaline  solution: 

Phenol.  Color.  Reaction  with  H-jSO* 

Resorcin  Orange  Pale  red 

Orcin  Orange  Pale  red 

Pyrogallol  Yellowish  brown  Orange 

Phloroglucin  Bordeaux  No  change 

a-Naphthol  Red  Black 

/?-Naphthol  Red  Pale  red 

When  dyed  in  connection  with  metallic  mordants,  these  phenol 
•colors  are  fast  to  light,  fulling,  acids,  and  boiling  water.  Tin 
mordants  give  yellow  and  orange  shades,  aluminium  orange,  iron 
dark  browns  and  olive  browns,  chromium  and  copper  garnet. 
Wool  treated  with  nitrous  acid  acquires  a  harsh  feel  and  is  non- 
hygroscopic. 

Its  acid  number  is  169,  and  its  iodin  number  4.7,  whereas 
untreated  wool  has  the  numbers  88  and  18.4  respectively.  It 
also  appears  to  contain  less  nitrogen  than  ordinary  wool.* 

Vignon  |  has  experimented  on  the  amount  of  heat  disengaged 
T)y  treating  wool  with  different  acids  and  alkalies,  with  the  follow- 
ing results,  using  100  grams  of  unbleached  wool: 

Reagent.  Calories  Liberated. 

Potassium  hydrate  (normal) 24. 50 

Sodium  hydrate  (normal) 24 . 30 

Hydrochloric  acid  (normal) 20 . 05 

Sulphuric  acid  (normal) 20 . 90 

These  figures  are  interesting  in  indicating  the  relative  acidity 
and  alkalinity  of  the  wool  fibre. 

In   common    with   most   other  organic   substances,    wool   is 

*  Lidow,  Chem.  Centr.,  1901,  i,  703. 
f  Compt.   rend.,  1890,  No.  17. 


46  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

totally  destroyed  by  the  action  of  concentrated  mineral 
acids.* 

With  organic  acids,  wool  is  usually  reactive,  readily  absorbing 
oxalic,  lactic,  tartaric,  acetic,  etc.,  acids.  Tannic  acid,  however,, 
is  an  exception,  and  is  not  absorbed  to  any  extent  by  the  fibre. 
But  if  wool  is  treated  in  a  boiling  solution  of  tannic  acid  and  the 
latter  fixed  in  the  fibre  by  a  subsequent  treatment  in  a  solution 
of  tartaric  emetic  (or  other  suitable  metallic  salt),  it  will  be  found 
that  the  fibre  becomes  altered  in  such  manner  that  it  no  longer 
exhibits  its  normal  affinity  towards  acid,  substantive,  and  mor- 
dant dyes.  Towards  basic  dyes,  however,  the  affinity  of  the 
wool  becomes  considerably  increased  by  reason  of  the  presence  of 
tannin. 

Although  so  resistant  to  the  action  of  acids,  on  the  other  hand,, 
wool  is  quite  sensitive  to  alkalies;  so  much  so,  in  fact,  that  a  five 
per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  soda  at  a  boiling  temperature  will 
completely  dissolve  wool  in  five  minutes.  From  this  fact  it  is 
easy  to  understand  why  soaps,  and  scouring  and  fulling  agents, 
in  general,  should  be  free  from  appreciable  amounts  of  caustic 
alkalies.  The  weaker  alkaline  salts,  such  as  the  carbonates,, 
soaps,  etc.,  are  not  so  destructive  in  their  action,  and  when  em- 
ployed at  moderate  temperatures  they  are  not  regarded  as  dele- 
terious, and  are  largely  used  in  scouring  and  fulling.  With' 
respect  to  the  amount  of  caustic  alkali  necessary  to  decompose- 
wool,  Knecht  found  that  on  boiling  wool  for  three  hours  with 
three  per  cent,  (on  the  weight  of  the  wool)  of  caustic  soda  the 
fibre  was  not  disintegrated,  but  on  increasing  the  amount  to 
six  per  cent.,  complete  disintegration  took  place  and  the  wool  was 
almost  entirely  dissolved. 

The  action  of  concentrated  solutions  of  caustic  alkalies  on 
wool  is  a  rather  peculiar  one.f  Solutions  of  caustic  soda  of  a 
strength  below  75°  Tw.  will  rapidly  disintegrate  the  fibre,  but 
with  solutions  of  75°-! 00°  Tw.  the  fibre  is  no  longer  disintegrated, 

*  On  treatment  with  cold  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  for  a  short  time  wool 
is  not  seriously  disintegrated;  the  fibre,  however,  suffers  a  change  in  that  it  loses, 
all  affinity  for  acid  dyes,  while  it  strongly  attracts  basic  dyes.  (Text.  Rec.,  vol.  22,. 
p.  229.) 

t  Kertesz,  Farber-Zeit.,  vol.  9,  pp.  35-36;    Buntrock,  ibid.,  vol.  9,  pp.  69-71.. 


WOOL  AND  HAIR   FIBRES.  47 

but,  on  the  other  hand,  increases  from  25  to  35  per  cent,  in  tensile 
strength,  becomes  quite  white  in  appearance,  and  acquires  a 
high  lustre  and  a  silky  scroop.  The  maximum  effect  is  obtained 
by  using  a  caustic  soda  solution  of  80°  Tw.  and  keeping  the  tem- 
perature below  20°  C.*  The  duration  of  the  treatment  should  not 
be  more  than  five  minutes.  The  addition  of  glycerol  to  the 
solution  of  caustic  soda  renders  the  action  of  the  alkali  more 
effective.  Wool  treated  in  this  manner  may  be  said  to  be  "mer- 
cerized," though  the  action  of  the  caustic  soda  in  this  case  is 
not  quite  analogous  to  that  in  the  mercerization  of  cotton.  From 
the  decrease  in  the  density  of  the  caustic  soda  solutions  employed, 
it  has  been  shown  that  the  wool  absorbs  a  considerable  amount 
of  sodium  hydrate  from  solution.  Whether  this  is  held  by  the 
wool  in  true  chemical  combination  has  net  been  ascertained. 
The  treated  wool  contains  but  a  small  amount  of  sulphur  com- 
pared with  that  present  in  the  original  fibre  (see  page  35);  analy- 
sis, in  fact,  shows  that  only  about  15  per  cent,  of  the  original  sul- 
phur remains  in  the  mercerized  wool.  The  dyeing  qualities  of  the 
latter  are  also  different  from  the  original  fibre  in  that  it  absorbs 
more  dyestuff  from  solution  and  hence  yields  heavier  shades. 
Quantitative  tests  have  shown  that  the  increase  in  the  absorption 
of  dyestuff s  is  as  follows: 

Class  of  Dyestuffs.  *£*£ 

Basic 12.5 

Acid 20.0 

Substantive 25 .  o 

Mordant 33 . 3 

Mercerized  wool  also  shows  an  increased  absorption  with 
respect  to  solutions  of  various  metallic  salts. 

The  exact  nature  of  the  action  of  caustic  soda  under  the  con- 
ditions given  is  rather  difficult  to  satisfactorily  explain.  Through 
a  microscopic  examination  of  the  treated  fibres  it  appears  that 
the  individual  scales  on  the  surface  of  the  wool  are  more  or  less 
fused  together  to  a  smooth  surface,  which  would  account  for  the 
great  increase  in  lustre.  The  additional  tensile  strength  is  prob- 
ably accounted  for  by  the  same  fact,  the  closer  adhesions  of  the 

*  Matthews,  Jour.  Soc.   Chem.  2nd.,   vol.  21,  p.  685. 


48  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

scales  giving  a  greater  rigidity  to  the  fibre.  The  volatile  alkalies, 
such  as  ammonia  and  ammonium  carbonate,  do  not  have  any 
marked  deleterious  effect  on  wool,  especially  at  low  temperatures; 
hence  these  compounds  form  excellent  scouring  materials.  The 
hydroxides  of  the  alkaline  earths,  though  less  violent  in  their 
action  than  the  fixed  caustic  alkalies,  nevertheless  decompose  wool. 
Milk  of  lime,  even  in  the  cold,  abstracts  most  of  the  sulphur,  and 
also  causes  the  fibre  to  become  hard  and  brittle  if  the  action  is 
prolonged ;  the  wool  also  loses  its  felting  quality  to  a  considerable 
extent.  Barium  hydroxide,  as  already  noted,  is  used  for  the 
decomposition  of  wool  in  the  preparation  of  lanuginic  acid. 

Towards  other  chemical  reagents  wool  is  much  more  reactive 
than  cotton,  and  either  absorbs  from  solution  or  chemically  com- 
bines with  many  substances.  The  fibre  is  quite  readily  oxidized 
when  treated  with  strong  oxidizing  agents  such  as  potassium 
permanganate  or  bichromate,  becoming  greatly  deteriorated  in 
its  qualities. 

Towards  chlorin  wool  acts  in  a  peculiar  manner;  it  is  com- 
pletely decomposed  by  moist  chlorin  gas,  but  in  weak  solutions 
it  absorbs  a  considerable  amount  of  chlorin  and  is  strangely 
altered  in  its  properties.*  It  becomes  harsh,f  has  a  high  lustre, 
and  acquires  a  silk-like  feel  or  "scroop,"  at  the  same  time  losing 
its  felting  properties,  though  its  attraction  for  coloring-matters 
in  general  is  largely  increased.  J 

*  Bromin  appears  to  have  a  similar  action  on  wool.  It  is  claimed  to  have 
the  advantages  over  chlorin  in  that  it  does  not  turn  the  material  yellow,  and 
that  in  mixtures  of  dyed  and  undyed  wool  the  former  is  not  attacked.  This 
latter  statement  is  open  to  doubt. 

f  According  to  a  recent  German  patent,  the  harshness  of  chlorinated  wool 
may  be  considerably  lessened  by  working  the  material  first  in  a  solution  of  a  salt 
such  as  citrate  of  zinc  or  acetate  of  iron,  or  of  sodium  stannate  or  aluminate;  this 
is  followed  by  a  second  bath  of  very  dilute  alkali,  after  which  the  goods  are  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  The  author,  however,  has  not  been  able  to  obtain  any  satisfac- 
tory results  on  testing  this  process. 

|  Chlorinated  wool  finds  quite  a  number  of  applications  in  practice.  The 
process  is  used,  fcr  instance,  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  a  silk-like  gloss  to  the 
fibre.  Again,  if  yarns  of  chlorinated  wool  and  ordinary  wool  are  woven  together 
in  pattern,  and  the  fabric  afterwards  fulled,  since  the  chlorinated  wool  does  not 
felt  it  will  not  shrink  up  like  the  remainder  of  the  yarn,  and  in  consequence  the 
pattern  will  be  brought  out  with  very  good  effect;  a  great  variety  of  novelties 


WOOL   AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  49 

With  neutral  metallic  salts  wool  does  not  seem  very  reactive, 
as  it  does  not  absorb  them  appreciably  from  their  solutions. 
With  salts,  however,  which  are  acid  in  reaction  and  are  capable 
of  being  easily  dissociated,  such  as  alum,  ferrous  sulphate,  etc., 
the  wool  fibre  possesses  considerable  attraction,  especially  when 
boiled  in  their  solutions.* 

With  regard  to  coloring-matters,  wool  is  the  most  reactive 
of  all  the  textile  fibres,  combining  directly  with  acid,  basic,  and 
most  substantive  dyestuffs,  and  yielding,  as  a  rule,  shades  which 
are  much  faster  than  those  obtained  on  other  fibres. 

There  have  been  various  opinions  put  forward  as  to  the 
influence  in  dyeing  of  the  active  chemical  groups  in  wool.  If 

may  be  produced  in  this  manner.  Finally,  the  property  of  chlorinated  wool 
to  take  up  more  dyestuff  than  ordinary  wool,  when  dyed  in  the  same  bath,  is 
also  utilized;  and  fabrics  with  beautiful  two-color  effects  may  be  easily  obtained 
in  this  manner  by  weaving  the  chlorinated  wool  into  designs  with  ordinary  wool 
and  afterwards  dyeing  with  suitable  coloring-matters. 

The  chlorination  of  the  woolen  yarn  is  carried  out  in  practice  as  follows:  The 
material  is  well  freed  from  all  greasy  matters  by  a  preliminary  scouring;  this  must 
be  very  thorough,  otherwise  good  results  will  not  be  obtained,  as  the  yarn  is  liable 
to  finish  up  very  uneven.  A  steeping  in  hydrochloric  acid  next  takes  place;  the 
solution  should  be  cold  and  have  a  density  of  ij°  Tw.  The  wool  should  be  left 
in  this  bath  for  twenty  minutes.  It  is  next  passed  into  a  solution  of  bleaching 
powder  standing  at  3°  Tw.  and  worked  for  ten  minutes,  after  which  it  is  again 
treated  with  the  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  washed  thoroughly.  It  is 
said  that  sodium  hypochlorite  is  better  to  use  than  chloride  of  lime,  and  sulphuric 
acid  is  preferable  to  hydrochloric,  showing  less  tendency  to  turn  the  material 
yellow.  The  yellow  color  due  to  the  chlorin  may  be  removed  by  treatment 
with  sulphurous  acid. 

*  Schellens  (Arch.  Pharm.,  1905,  p.  617)  has  furnished  some  interesting  experi- 
ments showing  the  relative  power  of  fixation  of  metallic  salts  possessed  by  vari 
ous  textile  fibres.  With  solutions  of  ferric  chloride,  for  instance,  the  following 
results  were  obtained: 

Solution  No.  i,  Solution  No.  a, 

containing  containing 

i  Per  Cent  of  Iron,     o.i  Per  Cent  of  Iron. 

Cotton-wool o.ii2  0.112 

Filter-paper o. 23  o.  123 

Vegetable  silk i .  01  0.56 

Jute 0.56  0.44 

.     Raw  silk , 0.67  0.67 

Wool , o .  84  o .  36 

The  figures  refer  to  the  weight  of  iron  fixed  by  i  gram  of  the  fibre  from  50  cc, 
of  the  respective  solutions. 


50  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

the  phenomena  of  dyeing  were  principally  of  a  chemical  nature 
we  would  expect  this  influence  to  be  a  considerable  one.  In 
the  case  of  acid  and  basic  dyes,  we  have  to  deal  with  bodies 
possessing  definite  chemical  characteristics;  that  is  to  say,  acid 
dyes  are  acid  in  nature,  while  basic  dyes  have  basic  properties. 
From  the  facts  already  put  forward  that  wool  consists  principally 
of  an  amido-acid,  and  is  therefore  capable  of  exhibiting  both  acid 
and  basic  properties,  it  would  be  natural  to  expect  that  in  dyeing 
with  acid  coloring-matters  there  would  be  (to  some  degree  at 
least)  the  formation  of  a  compound  between  the  acid  of  the  dye- 
stuff  and  the  base  of  the  wool;  and  likewise,  in  dyeing  with  basic 
coloring-matters  the  basic  portion  of  the  dyestuff  would  combine 
with  the  acid  portion  of  the  wool.  That  such  a  combination  in 
reality  does  take  can  hardly  be  doubted,  for  many  experimental 
facts  have  been  adduced  leading  to  such  a  conclusion.  Aside 
from  the  fact  that  wool  combines  directly  with  acid  and  basic 
coloring-matters,  it  has  also  been  shown*  that  when  the  active 
chemical  groups  in  the  fibre  are  neutralized  by  proper  chemical 
treatment,  the  reactivity  of  wool  towards  acid  and  basic  dyes  re- 
spectively is  much  decreased.  The  acid  nature  of  wool  may 
be  almost  completely  neutralized  by  acetylation  with  acetyl 
chloride,!  and  the  resulting  fibre  shows  but  very  slight  reactivity 
towards  basic  dyes,  and  a  correspondingly  increased  reactivity 
towards  acid  dyes. 

*  Suida,  Farber-Zeit.,  1905. 

t  Suida  has  found  that  when  wool  is  heated  with  acetyl  chloride  at  the  tem- 
perature of  the  water-bath  a  copious  evolution  of  hydrochloric  acid  takes  place, 
indicating  the  formation  of  an  acetyl  compound.  Wool  which  has  been  thus 
treated  and  freed  from  all  excess  cf  the  reagent  by  alternate  rinsing  with  alcohol 
and  water  is  found  to  have  lost  to  a  great  extent  its  affinity  for  the  basic  color- 
ing-matters. Wool  treated  with  acetic  anhydride  shows  the  same  effect.  Micro- 
scopical examination  in  both  cases  does  not  exhibit  any  structural  modifications 
in  the  fibre.  On  heating  wool  which  has  been  treated  in  this  manner  with  a 
weak  solution  of  ammonium  carbonate  (a  reagent  which  is  capable  of  saponify- 
ing acetyl  compounds),  the  wool  again  regains  its  normal  character  with  respect 
to  its  behavior  towards  basic  dyestuffs.  A  change  of  the  same  character  in 
wool  is  produced  by  heating  the  fibre  on  the  water-bath  with  alcohol  in  the  pres- 
ence of  a  small  amount  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.  This  treatment  also  appears 
to  form  an  ester  which  is  saponified  by  treatment  afterwards  with  an  alkali,  so 
that  the  wool  regains  its  original  condition. 


WOOL  AMD  HAIR  FIBRES  51 

If  wool  is  left  in  a  warm  place  in  a  moist  condition  so  that 
the  fibre  does  not  have  free  access  to  plenty  of  fresh  air,  ii  will 
soon  develop  a  fungoid  growth  or  mildew  in  spots.     This  causes 
the  fibre  to  become  tender  and  eventually  rot.     This  fungoid 
growth  will  develop  without  any  sizing  ingredients  or  other  for- 
eign matter  being  present  on  the  fibre.     It  rapidly  attacks  the 
scales  on  the  surface  of  the  Lbre, 
and  then  eats  into  the  inner  sub- 
stance of  the  wool.      Under  the 
microscope    (see    Fig.    16)    this 
fungoid  growth  appears   as  two 
forms:    (a)  Small   elliptical  cells 
which  adhere  to  the   surface   of 
the  fibre  and  spread  out  from  it; 
they  seem  to  colonize  especially        ^ 
at  the  joints  of  the  scales;  (6)  a     ../ 
tree-like    growth    consisting    of 
several  cells  joined  together  and       FIG.  1 6.— Wool  Fibres  Attacked  by 
branching  off  from  one  another;  Mildew-    (x  3°°-) 

these  grow  over  the  fibre  as  a  a'  fungus  growing  in  jointed  cells,  tree- 
i  •  j  £  .ei  •  j  j  like;  b,  fungus  growing  in  isolated  cells. 

kind  of  filmy  integument,  and  do 

J  (Micrograph  by  author.) 

not  appear  to  corrode  the  wool 

as  rapidly  as  the  first  kind  of  cells.  Mildew  is  especially  apt  to 
develop  on  woolen  material  which  contains  a  small  amount  of 
alkali,  the  alkaline  reaction  probably  being  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  fungus.* 

3.  Microchemical  Reactions. — The  chemical  reactions  of  the 
wool  fibre  under  the  microscope  are  not  as  characteristic  as  its 
physical  structure.  With  concentrated  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric 
acid  the  fibre  gradually  dissolves  with  a  red  coloration;  with 
nitric  acid  it  dissolves  with  much  difficulty  and  with  a  yellow 
color;  ammoniacal  copper  oxide  causes  the  fibre  to  distend  con- 
siderably with  gradual  disintegration,  bringing  the  scale  mark- 
ings into  prominence;  solutions  of  copper  or  ferric  sulphate 
stain  the  fibre  black. 

*  Hence  the  tendency  of  wool  dyed  in  the  indigo-vat  to  develop  mildew  stains. 


52  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

4.  Hygroscopic  Quality. — Wool  is  more  hygroscopic  than  any 
other  f  bre,  but  the  amount  of  moisture  it  will  contain  will  vary 
considerably  according  to  the  humidity  and  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  Under  average  conditions,  however, 
it  will  contain  from  1 2  to  14  per  cent,  of  absorbed  moisture.  The 
hygroscopic  quality  of  wrool  is  a  subject  of  considerable  importance 
in  the  commercial  handling  of  this  fibre,  for  the  weight  of  any 
given  lot  of  wrool  will  vary  within  large  limits  in  accordance  with 
climatic  conditions;  that  is  to  say,  the  shipment  of  wool  from  one 
locality  to  another  of  different  humidity  and  temperature  will 
cause  a  loss  or  gam  in  the  apparent  weight  of  the  material.  So 
important  a  factor  has  this  become  in  the  commercial  relations 
between  wrool -dealers,  that  conditioning  houses  for  wool  have 
been  established  in  many  European  centres  for  the  purpose  of 
carefully  ascertaining  the  actual  amount  of  fibre  and  moisture 
present  in  any  given  lot  of  wool,  the  true  weight  being  based  on  a 
certain  standard  percentage  of  moisture,  or  so-called  "regain." 
This  percentage  varies  somewhat  with  the  character  of  the  material 
and  also  the  conditioning  house,  ranging  from  16  to  19  per  cent. 
The  hygroscopic  quality  of  wool  also  has  an  important  bearing 
on  the  spinning  and  finishing  processes  for  this  fibre,  it  being 
necessary  to  maintain  a  definite  and  uniform  condition  of  moisture 
in  order  that  the  best  results  be  obtained  in  the  spinning  of  yarns 
and  the  finishing  of  the  woven  fabric.  The  wool  fibre  also 
appears  to  possess  a  certain  amount  of  water  of  hydration,  which 
is  no  doubt  chemically  combined  in  some  manner  with  the  fibre 
itself;  for  it  has  been  observed  that  wool  heated  above  100°  C. 
becomes  chemically  altered  through  a  loss  of  water  at  that  tempera- 
ture. This  will  no  doubt  explain  the  fact  that  air-dried  wool 
is  superior  in  quality  to  that  dried  by  means  of  artificial  heat, 
which  usually  signifies  a  rather  elevated  temperature.  According 
to  Persoz,  the  destructive  action  of  high  temperatures  on  the 
wool  fbre  may  be  prevented  by  saturating  the  material  with  a 
10  per  cent,  solution  of  glycerol,  after  which  treatment  the  wool 
may  be  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  140°  C.  without  being  affected. 
The  explanation  of  this  action  is  no  doubt  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  glycerol  holds  water  with  considerable  energy,  and  even 


WOOL  AND  H/4IR  FIBRES. 


53 


at  these  elevated  temperatures  all  of  the  moisture  originally 
present  in  the  wool  is  not  driven  out  of  the  fibre.  In  order  to 
economize  time,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  dry  wool  rather 
quickly  by  the  use  of  suitable  machinery  and  high  temperatures. 
Where  a  proper  regulation  of  the  temperature  is  possible,  the  wet 
wool  may  be  subjected  to  quite  a  high  degree  of  heat  without 
injury,  for  the  fibre  itself  does  not  become  heated  up,  due  to  the 
rapid  evaporation  of  the  moisture.  As  the  fibre  becomes  drier, 
however,  it  is  important  that  the  temperature  fall,  so  that  at  the 
end  of  the  operation,  when  the  wool  has  become  dried  to  its 
normal  content  of  moisture,  the  temperature  should  be  that  of 
the  atmosphere. 

Too  much  importance  cannot  be  attached  to  the  proper  dry- 
ing of  wool  in  all  of  its  stages  of  manufacture,  either  in  scouring, 
dyeing,  washing,  or  finishing.  If  wool  is  overdried,  that  is,  if 
the  moisture  in  it  is  reduced  to  an  amount  much  less  than  that 
which  it  would  normally  contain,  inferior  goods  will  always  be  the 
result,  for  the  intrinsic  good  qualities  of  the  fibre  become  greatly 
depreciated  every  time  such  a  mistake  is  committed. 

The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  air- 
dried  wool  and  when  exposed  to  an  atmosphere  saturated  with 
moisture,  as  compared  with  the  same  values  for  other  fibres: 


Fibre. 

Air-dry. 

Saturated. 

Fibre. 

Air-dry. 

Saturated. 

Wool  
Silk  . 

8-14 

3° 
?o 

Manila  hemp.  .  .  . 
Jute 

8-12 

6 

40 

Cdtton  
Ramie  

6-8 
6-3 

21 

18 

Flax  

5-8 

13 

5.  Conditioning  of  Wool. — In  speaking  of  the  hygroscopic 
quality  of  wool,  it  was  mentioned  that  this  fibre  was  capable  of 
absorbing  a  considerable  amount  of  moisture,  and  that  this  amount 
varied  within  rather  large  limits,  depending  upon  the  conditions 
of  temperature  and  humidity  of  the  air  to  which  it  may  be  exposed. 
It  may  be  readily  understood  from  these  facts  that  in  the  buying 
and  selling  of  wool  and  woolen  goods  upon  a  basis  of  weight,  the 
question  as  to  how  much  moisture  is  present  becomes  of  great 
practical  importance  in  determining  the  money  value  of  the 


54  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

operation.  In  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  this 
fact  has  been  recognized  for  some  time,  and  there  have  been 
established  at  the  various  European  wool-centres  official  labora- 
tories where  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  raw  wool  or  in  manu- 
factured woolen  material  is  carefully  ascertained,  and  the  sales 
are  based  on  the  actual  amount  of  normal  wool  fibre  contained 
in  the  lot  examined.  These  official  laboratories  *  are  called  "con- 
ditioning houses,"  and  the  process  of  determining  the  amount  of 
moisture  in  the  wool  is  termed  "conditioning."  In  the  condi- 
tioning of  wool  the  operation  is  carried  out  as  follows:  Repre- 
sentative samples  are  taken  from  the  lot  under  examination; 
these  are  mixed  together,  and  three  test  samples  of  J  to  i  Ib.  each 
are  taken.  The  test  sample,  after  being  carefully  weighed,  is 
placed  in  the  conditioning  apparatus  and  dried  to  constant  weight 
at  a  temperature  of  io5°-iio°C.  (220°  F.).  This  weight  repre- 
sents the  amount  of  dry  wool  fibre  present  in  the  sample,  the  loss 
in  weight  represents  the  amount  of  moisture  the  wool  contained. 
The  amount  of  normal  wool  is  obtained  by  adding  to  the  dry 
weight  of  the  wool  the  amount  of  moisture  supposed  to  be  present 
in  the  air-dried  material  under  normal  conditions  of  humidity  and 
temperature.  The  added  amount  is  termed  "regain,"  and  is 
officially  fixed  by  the  conditioning  house.  This  permissible 
percentage  of  regain  varies  with  the  form  of  the  manufactured 
wool;  the  conditioning  house  at  Bradford,  f  England,  for  instance, 
has  established  the  following  figures : 

Per  Cent. 

Wools , 16 

Tops  combed  with  oil 19 

Tops  combed  without  oil 18 \ 

Noils 14 

Worsted  yarns i8J 

*  The  first  official  conditioning  house  was  established  at  Lyons  in  1805  for 
the  conditioning  of  silk. 

t  The  system  cf  conditioning  adopted  at  Bradford  is  as  follows:  The  weights 
of  the  packages  and  conditions  are  taken  by  three  persons  independently  on 
sensitive  scales  which  are  adjusted  weekly.  These  scales  have  a  weighing  capacity 
from  one-half  pound  to  ten  tons.  In  making  the  tests  for  moisture,  the  samples 
are  carefully  selected  from  various  parts  of  the  packages.  The  amount  of  the 
material  taken  for  this  purpose  is  for  wools,  noils,  and  wastes,  about  two  pounds 
from  each  package;  for  tops,  three  balls;  for  yarns  in  hank,  about  four  pounds 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  55 

The  conditioning  house  at  Roubaix,  on  the  Continent,  allows 
following  percentages  for  regain  on  woolen  materials:* 

Per  Cent 

Wools i4J 

Tops i8J 

Woolen  yams 17 

The  percentage  of  regain  allowed  at  Bradford  is  considerably 
higher  than  would  be  indicated  by  the  amount  of  moisture  in 
woolen  materials  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia.  The  author 
has  found  from  many  conditioning  tests  at  the  Philadelphia 
Textile  School  that  woolen  yarns  will  average  about  10  per  cent, 
of  moisture,  worsted  tops  (in  the  oil)  and  loose  wool  about  12 
per  cent.,  and  woven  fabrics  of  wool  about  8  to  9  per  cent.  This 
would  correspond  to  a  regain  on  the  dry  weight  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Woolen  yarns n.i 

Worsted  tops  and  loose  wool 13.6 

Woolen  cloth 9.9 

in  1200  pounds;   for  yarns  on  bobbins  or  tubes,  twenty  to  forty  bobbins  or  tubes, 
and  for  yarns  on  cones,  cheeses,  etc.,  five  to  fifteen  pounds. 
The  standard  regains  and  allowances  are  as  follows: 

Wools  and  waste,  for  moisture,  a  regain  of  16  per  cent.,  equal  to  2  ozs.  3^  drs. 
per  Ib. 

Tops  combed  with  oil,  for  moisture,  a  regain  of  19  per  cent.,  equal  to  2  ozs. 
9  drs.  per  Ib. 

Tops  combed  without  oil,  for  moisture,  a  regain  of  i8J  per  cent.,  equal  to 
2  ozs.  7$  drs.  per  Ib. 

Ordinary  noils,  for  moisture,  a  regain  of  14  per  cent.,  equal  to  i  oz.  15$  drs. 
per  Ib.     Clean  noils,  a  regain  of  16  per  cent.,  equal  to  2  oz.  3^  drs.  per  Ib. 

Yarns,  worsted,  for  moisture,  a  regain  of  i8J  per  cent.,  equal  to  2  ozs.  7^  drs. 
per  Ib. 

Yarns,  cotton,  for  moisture,  a  regain  of  8J  per  cent.,  equal  to  i  oz.  4  drs.  per  Ib. 
Yarns,  silk,  for  moisture,  a  regain  of  1 1  per  cent.,  equal  to  i  oz.  9 \  drs.  per  Ib. 
Cloths,  worsted  and  woolen,  a  regain  of  16  per  cent.,  equal  to  2  ozs.  3^  drs. 
per  Ib. 

*The  International  Congress  at  Turin  (1875)  fixed  the  amount  of  "regain" 
for  different  textile  fibres  as  follows: 

Silk ii     per  cent. 

Wool  (tops) i8J 

Wool  (yarn) 17 

Cotton 8  J 

Linen 12 

Hemp 12 

Jute 13! 

New  Zealand  hemp 13! 


56  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

In  order  to  give  fair  regains  for  commercial  purposes,  the  author 
would  recommend  for  woolen  yarns  a  regain  of  n  per  cent.,  for 
tops  and  roving  and  loose  wool,  15  per  cent.,  and  for  wool  cloth 
ii  per  cent.  For  silk  the  regain  allowed  should  be  n  per  cent., 
and  for  cotton  and  vegetable  fibres  in  general  the  regain  should 
be  7  per  cent. 

In  the  United  States  Government  specifications  for  army 
blankets,  etc.,  of  wool,  a  regain  of  11  per  cent,  is  allowed. 

The  method  of  calculating  the  amount  of  normal  wool  may 
be  illustrated  by  the  following  example:  A  lot  of  1000  Ibs.  of  loose 
wool  was  submitted  for  conditioning;  ten  samples  of  i  Ib.  each 
were  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  lot;  these  were  mixed 
together  and  three  samples  of  250  grams  each  were  taken  for 
testing.  On  drying  to  constant  weight  the  three  samples  lost, 
respectively,  (i)  12.25  Per  cent,  (2)  12.30  per  cent,  (3)  12.22  per 
cent.,  making  the  loss  12.26  per  cent.  Hence  in  the  entire  lot 
of  1000  Ibs.  of  wool  there  were  122.6  Ibs.  of  moisture  or  1000— 
122.6  =  877.4  Ibs.  of  dry  wool.  The  permissible  amount  of 
regain  in  this  case  was  1 5  per  cent. ;  hence  the  amount  of  normal 

wool  would  be  ( 877. 4X— —j +877.4=1009  Ibs.  instead  of  1000 

Ibs. 

The  apparatus  employed  for  the  conditioning  test  is  usually 
one  of  such  a  construction  as  to  be  especially  adapted  for  the 
purpose.  The  form  may  differ  somewhat  in  details  with  different 
makers,  but  a  typical  conditioning  oven  may  be  described  as 
follows : 

The  apparatus  consists  of  an  upright  oven  heated  by  a  flame 
placed  in  the  lower  chamber.  An  even  temperature  is  main- 
tained by  so  conducting  the  currents  of  heated  air  that  they  pass 
completely  around  the  inner  chamber  or  oven  containing  the 
sample  to  be  tested  (see  Fig.  17).  A  thermometer  projecting  into 
the  oven  from  above  is  employed  for  indicating  the  temperature, 
and  this  may  be  maintained  at  the  desired  point  by  a  proper  regu- 
lation of  the  supply  of  heat.  The  material  to  be  conditioned,  in 
whatever  form  (as  loose  wool,  yarn,  etc.),  is  placed  in  a  wire  basket 
suspended  from  one  arm  of  a  balance  fixed  outside  and  above  the 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES. 


57 


oven;  the  weight  of  the  basket  and  its  contents  is  counterpoised 
by  placing  definite  weights  on  a  scale-pan  suspended  from  the 
other  arm  of  the  balance.  As  the  material  diminishes  hi  weight 
through  the  volatilization  of  its  moisture,  the  loss  is  noticed  from 
time  to  time  by  removing  the  necessary  weights  from  the  scale-pan 


FIG.  17. — Conditio  .ing  Apparatus. 

in  order  to  restore  the  equilibrium  of  the  balance.  When  the 
weight  becomes  constant  after  heating  at  110°  C.,  the  total  loss  is 
recorded,  and  this  figure  represents  the  amount  of  moisture 
which  was  originally  present  in  the  material  tested.  The  balance 
is  usually  enclosed  hi  a  suitable  case  in  order  to  protect  it  from 
draughts  of  air  whereby  its  sensibility  would  be  impaired. 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Another  form  of  conditioning  apparatus  of  somewhat  different 
shape  is  shown  in  Fi^.  18. 


FIG.   1 8. — Another  Form  of  Conditioning  Apparatus. 

6.  Calculations  Involved  in  Conditioning. — In  the  condition- 
ing of  wool  (or  of  any  other  textile  material),  there  are  certain 
calculations  necessary  which  it  may  be  advisable  at  this  point 
to  explain.  The  two  principal  calculations  to  be  made  involve 
the  determination  of  the  percentage  of  moisture  based  on  the 
weight  of  the  material  as  taken  for  the  test  (that  is,  on  its  moist 
wr  eight),  and  then  the  determination  of  the  conditioned  weight 
of  the  material  based  on  a  definite  percentage  allowance  of 
"regain,"  this  percentage  being  calculated  on  the  dry  weight 
of  the  material.  The  different  problems  in  conditioning  will  now 
be  taken  up.* 

*  See  Persoz,  Essai  des  Matures  Textiles. 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  .  59 

(1)  If  a  weight  (w)  of  material  after  drying  shows  a  weight 
(a),  what  percentage  (#)  of  moisture  does  it  contain  ? 

w— a  =  loss  in  weight  on  drying  =  moisture. 

1SJ 

-• Xioo=#.  per  cent,  of  moisture. 

•w— a 

(2)  If  a  quantity  of  material  of  weigl  t  (w)  contains  x  per  cent, 
of  moisture,  what  is  its  dry  weight  (a)  ? 


/     *\ 

a=iv\  i I. 

\       ioo/ 


(3)  If  from  a  weight  (W)  of  material  there  is  taken  a  sample 
of  weight  (w)  and  the  dried  weight  of  this  is  found  to  be  (a), 
what  will  be  the  conditioned  weight  (C)  of  the  material,  allowing 
a  regain  of  (R)  per  cent.  ? 

The  dry  weight  (A)  of  the  entire  material  will  be 

A=WX-> 

w 

and  the  conditioned  weight  will  be 


(4)  A  substance  is  conditioned  with  a  regain  of  (R)  per  cent., 
what  percentage  of  moisture  (x)  does  it  contain? 
We  have  the  proportion 

IOO+.R       IOO 


looR 
therefore  x 


--  —  =. 

loo+R 


6o 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  moisture  in  any 
material  corresponding  to  a  definite  percentage  of  regain. 


Per  Cent.  Regain. 

Per  Cent,  of  Moisture. 

Per  Cent.  Regain. 

Per  Cent,  of  Moisture^ 

! 

4.76 
5-66 

12 

I2-5 

10.71 
II.  II 

7 

6.54 

r3 

11.50 

7-5 

6.98 

14 

12.28 

8 
8-5 

7-4i 
7-83 

3 

I3-04 
13-79 

9 

8.26 

n 

!4-53 

10 

9.09 

18 

*5  -2S 

ii 

9.91 

19 

15-97 

20 

16.67 

(5)  If  a  material  contains  (#)  per  cent,  of  moisture,  what  will 
be  the  corresponding  percentage  of  regain  (R)  ? 

This  is  the  reverse  of  the  previous  problem.     We  have 


R  = 


IOOX 
100  —  X 


The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  regain  of  any  material 
corresponding  to  a  definite  percentage  of  moisture. 


Per  Cent,  of  Moisture. 

PerCent.  Regain. 

Per  Cent,  of  Moisture. 

Per  Cent.  Regain. 

1 

5.26 
6.38 

13 

14 

14.94 
16.28 

7 
8 

7-53 
8.70 

3 

17.65 
I9-05 

9 

9.89 

i? 

20.48 

10 

ii 

12 

II.  II 
12.36 
13.64 

18 
19 

20 

21-95 
23.46 
25.00 

(6)  If  a  material  is  required  to  possess  a  definite  conditioned 
weight  (C),  what  percentage  of  regain  (R)  must  be  applied  to 
the  dry  weight  (a)? 

We  have  the  proportion 

a        ico 


therefore 


C-a 
T* 


WOOL  AND  HAIR.  FIBRES.  61 

(7)  If  the  dry  weight  (c)  of  any  material  is  given,  what 
quantity  of  water  (q)  would  it  have  to  absorb  in  order  to  con- 
tain (#)  per  cent.  ? 

We  have  the  proportion 

100— x    a 


therefore  q= 


x          q 
ax 


The  weight  (PF)  of  the  material  after  absorbing  the  moisture 
would  b'e 


looa 
or  W  = . 

IQO-X 

(8)  If  the  dry  weight  (a)  of  a  material  is  given,  what  would 
be  its  conditioned  weight  (C),  allowing  (R)  percentage  of  regain? 

We  have  in  this  case 

C=a(I+A). 

100  / 

(9)  If  the  conditioned  weight  (C)  of  a  material  is  given  with 
percentage  of  regain  (R),  what  is  its  dry  weight  (a)  ? 

From  the  previous  formula  we  have 

looC 


loo+R' 

(10)  If  the  percentage  of  moisture  (x)  is  known  in  a  material, 
what  wrill  be  the  conditioned  weight  (C),  allowing  a  regain  of 
(R)  per  cent.? 

The  dry  weight  (a)  will  be 


/  x  \ 
'<(  i- — •  )• 
\  loo/ 


62  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Therefore  the  conditioned  weight  with  (R)  per  cent,  regain  will  be 


(u)  If  the  original  weight  (W)  of  a  material  is  known  and 
also  its  conditioned  weight  (C),  what  percentage  difference  in 
weight  (Z>)  would  there  be  between  the  original  weight  and  the 
conditioned  weight? 

We  have  the  proportion 

W        100 


therefore  D  = 


W-C~  D  ' 
ioo(W-Q 


W 


There  would  be  a  gain  or  loss  by  conditioning  according  to  whether 
(W)  is  greater  or  less  than  (C). 

(12)  If  the  conditioned  weight  (C)  of  a  material  is  given  and 
also  its  percentage  difference  (D)  on  conditioning,  find  the  original 
weight  (W)  of  the  substance. 

From  the  previous  formula  we  have 


loo-D' 

(13)  If  the  original  weight  (W)  of  a  material  is  known  and 
also  the  percentage  difference  (D)  on  conditioning,  find  the 
conditioned  weight  (C). 

From  the  previous  formula  we  have 


(14)  If  a  material  contains  (#)  per  cent,  of  moisture,  calcu- 
late the  difference  (d)  between  its  original  weight  (W)  and.  its 
conditioned  weight  (C)  with  a  regain  of  (R)  per  cent. 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  63 

This  difference  is 

d  =  W-C, 

and  from  the  formula  under  (10)  we  have 


W[(i  oo+R)x-iooR] 
hence  d=  —  -  —          •  -  *. 

10,000 

If  (W)  in  this  formula  is  taken  as  equal  to  100,  the  expression 
becomes  simplified  to 


According  to  the  value  of  (x)  this  difference  will  be  positive  or 
negative;  that  is  to  say,  the  material  will  lose  or  gain  by  condi- 
tioning. 


x  is  greater  than  ^ 


there  will  be  a  loss. 

If  x= 


loo+R 
the  fibre  will  be  in  its  conditioned  state. 


Finally,  if  x  is  less  than  - — — = 


the  material  will  gain  in  weight  by  conditioning. 

(15)  If  the  difference  (d)  between  the  original  weight  (W) 
of  a  material  and  its  conditioned  weight  (C)  at  a  regain  of  (R) 
per  cent,  is  known,  find  the  percentage  of  moisture  (x)  in  the 
material. 


64  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

This  is  the  reverse  of  the  preceding  problem  and  may  be 
solved  by  taking  the  reciprocal  of  the  formula  for  (d),  as  follows: 


W(ioo+R) 

If  we  take  the  original  weight  as  equal  to  100  and  call  (D)  the 
corresponding  difference,  the  expression  becomes 


ioo(R+D) 
X~    loo+R    ' 


It  is  necessary  to  remember  in  these  formulas  that  the  value  of 
(d)  or  (D)  is  positive  only  if  the  original  weight  is  greater  than 
the  conditioned  weight;  if  the  contrary  is  the  case,  the  difference 
will  be  of  a  negative  value.  For  example,  a  sample  of  wool 
loses  2  per  cent,  on  conditioning  at  15  per  cent,  regain;  hence 
it  contains 

100(15+2) 

H^ -=14.7  per  cent,  moisture, 

100  +  15 

whereas  if  it  gains  2  per  cent,  in  weight  by  conditioning,  we  have 

100(15—2) 

7 1— 11.3  per  cent,  moisture. 

100  +  15 

(16)  A  sample  of  material  shows  a  difference  in  weight  of 
(D)  per  cent,  on  conditioning  at  (R)  per  cent,  regain,  what  dif- 
ference (D'}  would  there  be  if  conditioned  at  a  regain  of  (Rr)  per 
cent.  ? 

If  we  call  the  dry  weight  (a),  then 


D  =  ioo-a[i+ ), 

\       loo/' 

D'  =  ioo-a(i+  — ). 
\      ioo/ 


WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES.  65 

Hence,  by  eliminating  (a),  we  have 


(ioo+Rf}D-ioo(R'-R) 

~ 


This  problem  will  often  arise  in  practice  where  two  different 
sets  of  regains  are  to  be  allowed.  For  example,  a  sample  of  wool 
conditioned  at  a  regain  of  15  per  cent,  loses  0.4  per  cent,  in 
weight,  how  much  would  it  lose  if  the  regain  allowed  was  17 
per  cent.? 

(117X0.4)  -(100X2) 
IX-i-          4V          -=-i-3  Per  cent.; 


that  is  to  say,  the  fibre  would  gain  1.3  per  cent,  in  weight. 

(17)  A  sample  of  material  on  conditioning  at  a  regain  of  (R) 
per  cent,  shows  a  loss  of  (D]  per  cent.,  what  regain  would  have  to 
be  adopted  in  order  that  the  loss  may  be  (£>')  per  cent.  ? 

From  the  previous  formula  we  have 


„, 


loo-D 


(18)  If  the  conditioned  weight  (C)  at  a  regain  of  (R)  per 
cent,  is  known,  calculate  the  conditioned  weight  (C')  at  a  regain 
of  (R'}  per  cent. 

From  the  formula  under  (8)  we  have 

C     loo+R 
C'~ioo+R'' 

loo+R' 


hence  C'  =  C 


loo+R 


(19)  In  a  textile  material  consisting  of  two  kinds  of  fibres, 
if  the  percentage  conditioned  amounts  of  the  two  fibres  are 
known,  (C)  and  (Cf),  and  their  respective  regains  are  (R)  and 


66  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

(Rf),  what  will  be  the  average  regain  (r)  and  the  average  amount 
of  moisture  (x)  in  the  mixture  ? 

If  (C)  and  (C')  are  the  conditioned  weights  of  the  two  fibres, 
their  dry  weights  (4)  and  (A'}  would  be 


,      .,       iooC' 
and    A' =  — 


the  average  moisture  would  be 

looC        iooC' 


cr 

1  — 


ioo+R    loo+R 
The  average  regain  would  be 


IOOX 

r= 


For  example,  suppose  we  have  conditioned  a  yarn  composed  of 
65  per  cent,  of  wool  and  35  per  cent,  of  cotton,  with  respective 
regains  of  15  and  7  per  cent.  Then 


ii5    107 
x=g.6  per  cent,  moisture, 
r=io.6  per  cent,  average  regain. 

(20)  In  a  textile  of  mixed  fibres  if  the  proportion  (P)  and  (P') 
of  the  two  fibres  is  known  on  the  dry  weight  (A),  together  with 


WOOL  AND  H/tlR  FIBRES.  67 

the  moisture  (x)  lost  on  drying,  what  would  be  the  conditioned 
weight  (C)  of  the  material,  allowing  (R)  and  (Rf)  respectively  as  the 
regains  for  the  two  fibres? 
We  have 


p 

— A  =  amount  of  first  fibre, 
100 


P' 

— A  =  amount  of  second  fibre. 
100 


and 


(PA      R  \     PA 
—  X )  +  —  =  conditioned  weight  of  first  fibre. 
100       IOO/       100 

(P'A      R'  \     PrA 
—  X )  H =  conditioned  weight  of  second  fibre. 
IOO        IOO/        IOO 

Adding  these  two  terms  gives  us 

(P7?  4-  Pf  Rf\ 
i  +  — j  =  conditioned  weight  of  entire  material. 


For  example,  suppose  a  yarn  contains  60  per  cent,  of  wool  and 
40  per  cent,  of  cotton  on  a  dry  weight  of  85  Ibs.,  allowing  respective 
regains  of  15  and  7  per  cent.,  what  would  be  the  conditioned 
weight  of  the  yarn? 


68 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  CONDITIONED  WEIGHT  OF  100  LBS.  OF  ANY  MATERIAL 
WITH  REGAINS  OF  7,  n,  AND  15  PER  CENT.,  CONTAINING  DIFFERENT 
AMOUNTS  OF  MOISTURE. 


Per  Cent. 

Conditioned  Weight,  Regains. 

Per  Cent. 

Conditioned  Weight,  Regains. 

Moisture. 

Moisture. 

Per  Cent. 

ii 
Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Cent. 

ii 
Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

5-° 

101.65 

105-45 

109.25 

9-7 

96.62 

100.23 

103.84 

.1 

101.54 

i°5-34 

109.14 

.8 

96.51 

100.  12 

103.73 

.2 

101.44 

io5-23 

109.02 

•9 

96.41 

IOO.OI 

103.61 

.3 

101  -33 

105.12 

108.91 

10.  0 

96.30 

99.90 

103.50 

•4 

101.22 

105.01 

108.79 

.1 

96.19 

99-79 

103-38 

.5 

101.12 

104.90 

108.68 

.  2 

96.09 

99.68 

103.27 

.6 

101.01 

104.78 

108.56 

•3 

95.98 

99-57 

103.16 

.7 

100.90 

104.67 

108.45 

•4 

95-87 

99.46 

103.04 

.8 

100.80 

104.56 

108.33 

•5 

95-77 

99-34 

102.93 

•9 

100.69 

104.45 

108.22 

.6 

95.66 

99-23 

102.  8l 

6.0 

100.58 

104.34 

108.  10 

•  7 

95-55 

99.12 

IO2  .  7O 

.1 

100.48 

104.23 

107.99 

.8 

95-45 

99.01 

102.58 

.2 

100.37 

104.12 

107.87 

•9 

95-34 

98.90 

102.47 

.3 

100.26 

104.01 

107.76 

II.  0 

95-23 

98.79 

102.35 

•  4 

100.15 

103.90 

107.64 

.1 

95  -12 

98.68 

102.24 

.5 

100.05 

103-79 

107-53 

.2 

95.02 

98.57 

102.12 

.6 

99-94 

103  .  67 

107.41 

•3 

94.91 

98.46 

102.01 

•  7 

99-83 

103.56 

107.30 

•4 

94.81 

98.35 

101.89 

.8 

99.72 

!03-45 

107.18 

•5 

94-70 

98.23 

101.78 

•9 

99.62 

103.34 

107.07 

.6 

94-59 

98.12 

101.66 

7.0 

99-51 

103.23 

106.95 

•  7 

94.48 

98.01 

101-55 

.  i 

99.40 

103.12 

106.84 

.8 

94-37 

97.90 

101.43 

.2 

99-3° 

103.01 

106.72 

•9 

94.27 

97-79 

101.32 

•  3 

99.19 

IO2  .90 

106.61 

12.0 

94.16 

97.68 

101.20 

.4 

99.08 

102.79 

106.49 

.1 

94-05 

97-57 

IOI.o8 

.5 

98.98 

102.68 

106.38 

.2 

93-95 

97.46 

100.97 

.6 

98.87 

102.56 

106.26 

•3 

93-84 

97-35 

100.85 

.7 

98.76 

102.45 

106.  15 

•  4 

93-73 

97-24 

100.74 

.8 

98.66 

102.34 

106.03 

•5 

93.62 

97.12 

100.62 

•9 

98.55 

102.23 

105.92 

.6 

93-52 

97.01 

100.51 

8.0 

98.44 

102.12 

105.80 

•  7 

93-41 

96.90 

100-39 

.1 

98.34 

102.01 

105.69 

.8 

93-30 

96.79 

100.28 

.2 

98.23 

101.90 

105.57 

•9 

93-19 

96.68 

ioo.  16 

•  3 

98.12 

101.79 

105.46 

13.0 

93-09 

96-57 

100.05 

•4 

98.01 

101.68 

105.34 

.1 

92.98 

96.46 

99-94 

.5 

97.90 

101.57 

105-23 

.2 

92.88 

96-35 

99.82 

.6 

97.80 

101.45 

105.11 

•3 

92.77 

96.24 

99.71 

•  7 

97.69 

101.34 

105  .  oo 

•4 

92.66 

96.13 

99-59 

.8 

97-58 

101.23 

104.88 

-5 

92-55 

96.01 

99-48 

•9 

97.48 

101.12 

104.77 

.6 

92-45 

95-9° 

99.36 

9.0 

97-37 

101.01 

104.65 

•  7 

92-34 

95-79 

99-25 

97.26 

100.90 

104.53 

.8 

92.23 

95.68 

99  -J3 

.2 

97.16 

100.79 

104.42 

•9 

92.12 

95-57 

99.02 

.3 

97  -°5 

100.68 

104.30 

14.0 

92.02 

95-46 

98.90 

•4 

96.94 

100.57 

104.19 

.1 

91.91 

95-35 

98.78 

.5 

96.84 

100.46 

104.07 

.  2 

91.81 

95-24 

98.67 

.6 

96-73 

100.34 

103.96 

•3 

91.70 

95  -J3 

98.56 

WOOL  AND  HAIR  FIBRES. 


69 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  CONDITIONED  WEIGHT — (Continued). 


Per  Cent. 
Moisture. 

Conditioned  Weight,  Regains. 

Per  Cent. 
Moisture. 

Conditioned  Weight,  Regains. 

PerCent. 

ii 
Per  Cent. 

Pe/Cent. 

Per  Cent 

PerCent. 

Per'dent. 

14.4 

91-59 

95.02 

98.44 

17.8 

87-95 

91.24 

94-53 

•5 

91.49 

94.90 

98-33 

-9 

87.85 

Q1-^ 

94.42 

.6 

91.38 

94-79 

98.21 

18.0 

87-74 

91.02 

94-30 

•  7 

91.27 

94.68 

98.10 

.  i 

87.63 

90.91 

94.18 

.8 

91.  16 

94-57 

97.98 

.2 

87-52 

90.80 

94.07 

•9 

9I-°5 

94.46 

97.87 

•3 

87.42 

90.69 

93-96 

i5-o 

9°  -95 

94-35 

97-75 

•  4 

87-31 

90.58 

93-84 

.  i 

90.84 

94.24 

97.64 

•5 

87.21 

90.46 

93-73 

.2 

90.74 

94-13 

97-52 

.6 

87.10 

9°-35 

93.61 

•  3 

90.63 

94.02 

97.41 

•  7 

86.99 

90.24 

93-5° 

•  4 

90.52 

93-91 

97.29 

.8 

86.88 

90.13 

93-38 

•5 

90.42 

93-79 

97.18 

•9 

86.78 

90.02 

93-27 

.6 

90-3i 

93.68 

97.06 

19.0 

86.67 

89.91 

93  -15 

•  7 

90.20 

93-57 

96-95 

.1 

86.56 

89.80 

93-04 

.8 

90.09 

93-46 

96.83 

.2 

86.45 

89.69 

92.92 

•9 

89.98 

93-35 

96.72 

•  3 

86-35 

89-58 

92.81 

16.0 

89-88 

93-24 

96.60 

•  4 

86.24 

89-47 

92.69 

.1 

89.77 

93-13 

96.48 

•5 

86.13 

89.36 

92.58 

.2 

89.67 

93.02 

96-37 

.6 

86.02 

89.24 

92.46 

•  3 

89.56 

92.91 

96.26 

•  7 

85-92 

89.13 

92-35 

•4 

89.45 

92.80 

96.14 

.8 

85.81 

89.02 

92.23 

•  5 

89.34 

92.68 

96.03 

•9 

85-71 

88.91 

92.12 

.6 

89.24 

92-57 

95-9i 

20.0 

85.60 

88.80 

92.00 

•  7 

89.13 

92.46 

95.80 

.1 

85.49 

88.69 

91.88 

.8 

89.02 

92-35 

95-68 

.  2 

85  38 

88.58 

91-77 

•9 

88.92 

92.24 

95-57 

•3 

85.28 

88.47 

91.66 

17.0 

88.81 

92.13 

95-45 

•4 

85.17 

88.36 

91-54 

.1 

88.71 

92.02 

95-34 

•  5 

85.06 

88.25 

9T-43 

.2 

88.60 

91.91 

95-22 

.6 

84.95 

88.13 

9I-3I 

•3 

88.49 

91.80 

95-11 

-7 

84-85 

88.02 

91  .  20 

•  4 

88.38 

91.69 

94-99 

.8 

84.74 

87.91 

91.08 

•5 

88.28 

9!-57 

94.88 

•9 

84-63 

87.80 

90.97 

.6 

88.17 

91.46 

94-76 

21.0 

84.53 

87.69 

90.85 

•  7 

88.06 

9r-35 

94.65 

CHAPTER  IV. 

SHODDY  AND  WOOL  SUBSTITUTES. 

I.  Varieties  of  Shoddy. — Besides  the  natural  varieties  of  wool 
which  find  applications  hi  the  textile  industries  we  have  a  large 
quantity  of  recovered  wool  employed  as  a  textile  fibre.  This 
is  obtained  by  tearing  up  woolen  rags  and  waste,  converting  it 
back  into  the  loose  fibre  and  spinning  it  over  again,  either  alone 
or  in  admixture  with  varying  proportions  of  pure  fibre  or  fleece- 
wool.  This  artificial  wool,  or  wool  substitute,  as  it  is  frequently 
called,  is  also  obtained  from  rags  and  waste  containing  wool 
and  cotton,  or  even  silk;  the  vegetable  fibre  being  destroyed  by 
chemical  treatment,  leaving  the  animal  fibre  to  be  extracted  and 
used  again.  On  this  account  it  is  sometimes  known  as  extract 
'wool.  The  industry  of  converting  recovered  fibre  into  yarns  and 
fabrics  has  assumed  of  late  enormous  proportions,  and  nearly 
all  cheap  woolen  goods  contain  a  high  percentage  of  these  wool 
substitutes  in  their  composition.  Depending  on  its  source  of 
production,  this  recovered  wool  will  vary  largely  in  its  quality, 
and  according  to  its  origin  and  nature  it  is  classed  under  several 
names,  chief  among  which  are  the  following: 

(a)  Shoddy.  Though  this  name  is  frequently  applied  to  all 
manner  of  recovered  fibre,  it  is  more  specifically  used  to  desig- 
nate that  which  is  derived  from  all-wool  rags  or  waste  which  have 
not  been  felted,  also  from  knit  goods.  This  yields  the  best  qual- 
ity of  fibre,  the  average  length  of  which  is  about  one  inch.  In 
many  cases  it  is  almost  equal  in  quality  to  a  fair  grade  of  fleece- 
wool,  and  is  used  in  the  production  of  many  high-grade  fabrics. 

(6)  Mungo  refers  to  the  fibre  obtained  from  woolen  material 
which  has  been  fulled  or  felted  considerably,  to  disintegrate  the 

70 


SHODDY  AND   WOOL  SUBSTITUTES.  71 

rags  the  fibres  must  be  torn  apart,  and  consequently  it  yields 
fibres  of  shorter  staple  and  less  value  than  the  preceding. 

(c)  Extract  wool  is  that  obtained  from  mixed  wool  and  cotton 
rags  and  waste,  and  has  to  undergo  the  process  of  carbonization, 
whereby  the  vegetable  fibre  is  destroyed.*  It  is  sometimes  called 
alpaca,  and  varies  much  in  its  length  of  staple  and  other  qualities. 
Besides  these  well-known  varieties  of  recovered  wool  there  are 
a  number  of  others  to  be  met  with  in  commerce,  such  as  Thibet 
•wool,  which  is  usually  obtained  from  light-weight  cloth  clippings 
and  waste.  Cosmos  fibre  is  a  very  low-grade  material,  usually  con- 
taining no  wool  at  all,  being  made  by  converting  flax,  jute,  and 
hemp  fabrics  back  to  the  fibre. f  Even  the  short  down  obtained 
in  the  shearing  of  woolen  cloths  is  used,  it  being  employed  as  a 
filler.  The  process  of  using  it  is  called  "impregnating,"  and  con- 
sists in  fulling  the  short  waste  into  the  cloth  on  the  under  side. 

2.  Examination  of  Shoddy. — Woolen  fibres  consisting  of 
shoddy  usually  offer  a  very  characteristic  appearance  under  the 
microscope,  sufficient,  at  least,  to  distinguish  them  from  fibres 
of  new  wool.  A  sample  of  shoddy  generally  shows  the  presence 
of  other  fibres  besides  wool,  and  fibres  of  silk,  linen,  and  cotton 
are  frequently  to  be  observed  (Fig.  19).  Also,  the  colors  of  the 
different  woolen  fibres  present  are  frequently  quite  varied,  so  that 
shoddy  usually  presents  a  multi-colored  appearance  under  the 
microscope.  A  very  striking  appearance,  also,  is  the  simultaneous 
occurrence  of  dyed  and  undyed  fibres;  the  diameters  of  the  fibres 
will  also  vary  between  large  limits,  the  variation  in  this  respect 
being  much  more  than  with  fleece  wool.  Some  samples  of  shoddy 
will  also  show  a  large  number  of  torn  and  broken  fibres,  and 
usually  the  external  scales  are  rougher  and  more  prominent. 

*  This  process  is  generally  carried  out  by  steeping  the  rags  in  a  solution  of 
sulphuric  acid  (6°  Iw.)  at  140°  to  180°  F.  and  then  drying,  whereupon  the  vege- 
table fibres  are  decomposed  and  are  easily  dusted  out  by  willowing,  the  wool 
fibres  being  scarcely  affected,  The  excess  of  acid  is  then  removed  by  treat- 
ment with  soda-ash  and  washing  The  fibres  obtained  are  sometimes  over  one 
inch  in  length. 

t  Peat  fibre  is  a  product  obtained  from  partially  decomposed  peat.  It  is  mixed 
with  wool  for  yarns  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  horse-cloths,  mats,  etc. 
Wood-wool  is  a  somewhat  similar  product  obtained  from  the  long  bleached  fibres 
of  wood. 


72  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  pure  wool  may  also 
show  the  presence  of  small  quantities  of  vegetables  fibres  at  times. 
These  often  arise  from  the  occurrence  of  burrs  (bristly  and  barbed 
seeds  of  various  plants)  in  the  original  fleece.  South  American 
wools  are  especially  liable  to  contain  such  burrs;  in  many  cases 
these  are  incompletely  removed,  and  may  ultimately  appear  even 


FIG.  19. — Microscopic  Appearance  of  Shoddy,  showing  the  varied  Character  of 
the  Fibres.     (X35O.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

in  the  woven  cloth.  This  frequently  explains  the  existence  of 
short  fibres  or  vascular  bundles  of  vegetable  matter  in  cloth. 
Isolated  fibres  of  woody  tissue  and  cotton  may  also  accidentally 
creep  in  through  a  variety  of  causes.  According  to  Hohnel, 
samples  of  pure  wool  may  easily  contain  as  much  as  £  per  cent, 
of  vegetable  fibre.  The  latter  authority  also  states  that  the  vege- 
table fibres  of  shoddy,  as  a  rule,  are  removed  by  carbonizing; 
hence  the  absence  of  cotton,  linen,  etc.,  must  not  be  taken  as  a 
criterion  to  distinguish  between  pure  wool  and  shoddy.  When, 


SHODDY  4ND  WOOL  SUBSTITUTES.  73 

however,  cotton  (always  dyed)  or  cosmos  fibre  occurs  in  at  least 
a  quantity  of  one  per  cent.,  this  may  be  taken  as  a  direct  indica- 
tion of  the  presence  of  shoddy,  as  it  would  scarcely  ever  happen 
that  pure  wool  is  adulterated  with  cotton;  this  only  happens  by 
admixture  with  shoddy  wool.  Undyed  cotton,  unless  present  hi 
considerable  amount,  cannot  be  considered  as  a  suspicious  com- 
ponent. 

The  determination  of  the  length  of  staple  is  also  a  rather  unre- 
liable indication  as  to  the  presence  of  shoddy,  for  there  are  vari- 
eties of  shoddy  wools  which  are  longer  in  staple  than  many  fleece- 
wools;  and  also  woven  goods,  though  composed  entirely  of 
fleece-wool,  may  show  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of  short 
fibres  caused  by  the  shearing  of  the  surface  of  the  cloth,  and  by 
the  tearing  of  the  fibres  in  heavy  fulling. 

Where  woolen  cloth  has  been  impregnated  or  filled  with 
short  fibres  obtained  from  clippings,  such  may  usually  be  recog- 
nized by  teasing  the  sample  out  with  a  stiff  bristle-brush.  Good 
cloth  should  not  yield  over  £  per  cent,  of  clipped  fibres  from  both 
sides.  When  the  amount  of  such  fibres  is  at  all  considerable, 
they  may  be  used  as  serviceable  material  to  test  microscopically 
for  shoddy,  as  they  are  most  likely  to  be  made  up  of  this  character 
of  wool. 

Fine  fleece-wools  hardly  ever  show  the  absence  of  epidermal 
scales  (though  this  is  frequently  the  case  with  coarse  wools); 
hence  if  examples  of  such  fine  wools  are  found  showing  a  lack  of 
epidermis,  it  may  usually  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  shoddy. 

Hohnel,  however,  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  following 
conditions  previous  to  the  manufacturing  process  itself  have  con- 
siderable influence  on  the  good  structure  and  integrity  of  the 
wool  fibre:  badly  cut  staple,  lack  of  attention  in  raising  the  sheep, 
poor  pasturage,  sickness  of  the  animal,  the  action  of  urine,  snow, 
rain,  dust,  etc.,  packing  the  wool  in  a  moist  condition,  rapid 
and  frequent  changes  of  moisture  and  temperature,  the  use  of  too 
hot  or  too  alkaline  baths  in  scouring,  scouring  with  bad  deter- 
gents, etc.  These  influences  may  lead  to  the  partial  removal  of 
the  epidermis,  and  to  the  softening  and  breaking  of  the  ends  of 
the  fibre.  There  must  also  be  considered  the  influence  of  wil- 


74  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

lowing,  carding,  combing,  spinning,  weaving,  gigging,  fulling, 
acidifying,  washing,  shearing,  pressing,  etc.,  from  which  it  is  easy 
to  understand  why  even  fibres  of  fleece-wool  may  show  the  entire 
absence  of  epidermis.  Hohnel  also  criticises  other  alleged  char- 
acteristics of  shoddy,  such  as  torn  places  in  the  fibre,  uneven- 
ness  in  diameter,  etc.,  claiming  that  these  can  hardly  be  taken 
as  an  indication  of  shoddy,  because  such  marks  are  often  regu- 
larly present  in  many  fleece-wools.  Most  samples  of  shoddy, 
in  fact,  show  scarcely  any  structural  differences  from  ordinary 
fleece-wool.  The  ends  of  shoddy  fibres,  however,  usually  present 
a  torn  appearance;  at  least  there  is  a  great  predominance  of  such 
fibres  in  shoddy,  whereas  in  fleece-wool  this  appearance  is  seldom 
to  be  observed,  the  end  of  the  fibre  being  cut  off  sharply.  The 
appearance  of  the  torn  fibres  may  be  easily  observed  under  the 
microscope;  the  epidermis  being  entirely  torn  away,  as  well  as 
the  marrow  which  is  sometimes  present,  while  the  fibrous  cortical 
layer  is  frayed  out  like  the  end  of  a  brush.  This  appearance  can 
usually  be  rendered  more  distinct  by  previously  soaking  the  fibres 
in  hydrochloric  acid.  Sheared  fibres  are  recognized  by  being 
very  short  and  by  having  both  ends  sharply  cut  off. 

The  color  of  the  fibres  is  also  a  characteristic  appearance  of 
shoddy,  as  the  majority  of  shoddy  is  made  up  of  variously  colored 
wools.  It  is  of  rare  occurrence  that  rag-shoddy  possesses  a  single 
uniform  color.  Hence  if  a  sample  of  yarn,  possessing  a  single 
average  color,  on  examination  reveals  the  presence  of  variously 
colored  fibres,  it  is  almost  a  positive  indication  of  shoddy.  In 
this  connection  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  fre- 
quently differently  colored  wools  are  mixed  together  previous  to 
spinning,  to  make  so-called  "mixes."  As  a  rule,  however,  only 
two  to  three  colors  are  used  together;  therefore  a  purposely  mixed 
yarn  of  this  description  is  not  likely  to  be  confounded  with  a 
shoddy  yarn  wrhere  individual  fibres  of  a  large  number  of  colors 
are  nearly  always  shown. 


CHAPTER  V. 

MINOR  HAIR  FIBRES. 

1.  The   Minor  Hair  Fibres. — Besides  the  fibre  obtained  from 
the  domestic  sheep,  there  are  large  quantities  of  hair  fibres  em- 
ployed in  the  textile  industries  and  obtained  from  related  species 
of  animals,  such  as  goats,  camels,  etc.     As  these  are  all  more  or 
less  utilized  in  conjunction  with  wool  itself,  and  are  subjected  to 
similar  operations  in  manufacturing,  it  will  not  be  out  of  place  to 
consider  them  at  this  point.     The  chief  among  these  related  fibres 
are  mohair,  cashmere,  alpaca,  cow-hair,  and  camel-hair. 

2.  Mohair. — This  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  Angora  goat,  an 
animal  which  appears  to  be  indigenous  to  western  Asia,  being 
largely  cultivated  in  Turkey  and  neighboring  provinces.     The 
fleece  is  composed  of  very  long  fibres,  fine  in  staple,  and  with  little 
or  no  curl.     The  fibre  is  characterized  by  a  high  silky  lustre. 
Mohair  is  now  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  Western 
States,    principally   Oregon,    California,   and   Texas,    the   goats 
having  originally  been  imported  from  Turkey;    there  is  also  a 
large  quantity  of  mohair  grown  in  Cape  Colony.     The  principal 
mohair  clips  (1902)  are  as  follows: 

Turkey 8,500,000  Ibs. 

Cape  Colony 7,500,000    ' ' 

United  States 1,250,000    " 

The  principal  use  of  mohair  is  for  the  manufacture  of  plushes, 
braids,  fancy  dress  fabrics,  felt  hats,  and  linings.  The  charac- 
ter of  fabric  in  which  it  may  be  employed  is  rather  limited  on 
account  of  the  harsh  wiry  nature  of  the  mohair  fibre,  and  the 
fact  that  it  will  not  felt  to  any  degree.  Domestic  mohair  (Ameri- 

75 


^6  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

can)  has  only  about  two-thirds  of  the  value  of  the  foreign  fibre; 
mohair  in  general  has  quite  a  large  amount  of  kempy  fibre  (which 
will  not  dye),  but  the  domestic  variety  contains  about  15  per  cent, 
more  kemp  than  the  foreign,  hence  the  lower  value  of  the  former. 
Another  reason  for  this  lessened  value  is  that  foreign  mohair  always 
represents  a  full  year's  growth  (the  fibres  being  9  to  12  ins.  in 
length),  whereas  a  great  deal  of  domestic  mohair  is  shorn  twice 
a  year.  This  is  especially  true  of  that  grown  in  Texas;  the  hair 
commences  to  fall  off  the  goats  in  that  district  if  allowed  to  grow 
for  the  full  year.  In  judging  of  the  quality  of  mohair,  the  length 
and  lustre  are  of  more  value  than  the  fineness  of  staple.  The 
finest  grades  of  domestic  mohair  come  from  Texas,  that  from 
Oregon  and  California  being  larger  and  coarser.  In  Oregon  the 
fleece  is  grown  for  a  full  year,  and  consequently  the  fibre  is  very 
long.  The  average  weight  of  the  fleece  from  Oregon  goats  is 
4  Ibs.,  while  in  Texas  it  is  only  2\  Ibs.  Foreign  mohair  varies 
much  in  quality,  depending  upon  the  district  in  which  it  is  grown; 
as  a  rule,  the  finer  varieties  are  shorter  in  staple,  the  finest  being 
about  9  ins.  in  length.  Foreign  mohair  can  be  spun  to  as  high  a 
count  as  6o's,  whereas  the  finest  quality  of  domestic  mohair  can 
only  be  spun  to  as  high  as  4o's.  The  coarsest  varieties  of  mohair 
are  used  in  carpets,  low-grade  woolen  fabrics,  and  blankets. 

Microscopically,  the  mohair  fibre  is  possessed  of  the  following 
characteristics:  The  average  length  is  about  18  cm.,  and  the 
diameter  about  40  to  50  fi,  and  very  uniform  throughout  the  entire 
length  (see  Fig.  20).  The  epidermal  scales  can  only  be  observed 
with  difficulty,  as  they  are  very  thin  and  flat,  though  regular 
in  outline.  They  are  also  very  broad,  a  single  scale  frequently 
surrounding  the  entire  fibre;  the  edge  of  the  scale  is  usually  finely 
serrated.  The  best  grades  of  fibres  show  no  medulla,  but  there 
are  usually  to  be  found  (especially  in  domestic  mohair)  coarse, 
thick  fibres  possessing  a  broad  medullary  cylinder,  thus  resem- 
bling the  structure  of  ordinary  goat-hair,  from  which,  however, 
they  are  to  be  distinguished  by  being  more  slender  and  more  uni- 
form in  their  diameter.  Longitudinally,  the  fibre  exhibits  coarse, 
fibrous  striations,  approximating  the  appearance  of  broad  and 
regularly  occurring  fissures.  Due  to  the  fact  that  the  surface  scales 


MINOR  HAIR  FIBRES.  77 

lie  very  flat  and  do  not  project  over  one  another,  the  edge  of  the 
fibre  is  very  smooth,  showing  scarcely  any  serrations  at  all,  which 
accounts  for  its  utter  lack  of  felting  qualities.  The  outer  end  of 
the  fibre  is  either  slightly  swollen  or  blunt,  but  never  pointed. 
When  viewed  under  polarized  light  the  fibres  occasionally  show 
the  presence  of  a  medullary  canal,  which  appears  as  a  hollow 
space,  giving  an  illumination  somewhat  resembling  that  of  a 


FlG.  20. — Mohair  Fibres.     (X35O.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

bast  fibre,   and   covering  from  one-fourth   to   one- half  of  the 
diameter. 

3.  Cashmere  is  remarkable  for  its  softness,  and  is  much  used 
in  the  woolen  industry  for  the  production  of  fabrics  requiring  a 
soft  nap.  Cashmere  is  the  fibre  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  famous  Indian  shawls.  There  are  two  qualities  of  cashmere 
wool,  the  one  consisting  of  the  fine,  soft  down-hairs  and  the  other 
of  long,  coarser  beard-hairs.  The  former  are  from  i  \  to  3  \  ins.  in 
length  and  13  /*  in  diameter,  while  the  latter  are  from  3^  to  4^  ins. 
in  length  by  60  to  90  //  in  diameter.  The  wool- hairs  show 


7  8  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

visible  scales  but  no  definite  medulla,  whereas  the  beard- hairs 
possess  a  well-developed  medulla.  The  cortical  layer  is  coarsely 
striated  and  shows  characteristic  fissures.  At  the  point  of  the 
fibre  the  epidermal  scales  are  either  entirely  absent  or  are  so 
thin  as  to  be  scarcely  visible.  The  fibre  is  very  cylindrical; 
the  scales  have  their  free  edge  finely  serrated,  and  the  edge  of 
the  fibre  also  presents  the  same  appearance. 

Besides  mohair  and  cashmere,  the  hair  of  the  ordinary  goat 
is  also  used  at  times.     It  has  the  following  characteristics  (Hohnel) : 


FIG.  21. — Wool-hairs  of  Cashmere.     (X35O.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

It  is  white,  yellow,  brown,  or  black  in  color,  and  generally  from  4 
to  10  cm.  long.  It  consists  almost  entirely  of  wool-hairs,  which, 
like  pulled  wool,  nearly  always  show  the  hair  root.  The  average 
hair  exhibits  the  following  structure  (see  Fig.  21):  At  the  base 
it  is  about  80  to  90  /*  thick;  the  root  is  about  £  mm.  long;  the 
marrow  is  just  visible  at  the  root,  then  rapidly  increases  in  thick- 
ness, so  that  a  few  millimeters  from  the  base  it  is  50  /*  thick, 
where  the  thickness  of  the  hair  amounts  to  from  80  to  90  /*.  The 
cortical  layer  from  this  point  on  forms  a  very  thin  cylinder.  The 


MINOR  HAIR  FIBRES.  79 

cross-section  is  round;  the  epidermis  consists  of  broad  scales 
about  1 5  fji  long,  the  forward  edges  of  which  are  scarcely  thickened, 
but  appear  as  if  terminating  in  a  sharp  line;  furthermore  they 
are  not  serrated.  The  medullary  cells  are  thick-walled,  narrow, 
and  flattened.  Towards  the  end  the  hair  is  very  brittle  and 
easily  broken.  Colored  goat- hair  shows  the  presence  of  pigment- 
matter  in  all  of  its  tissues;  in  such  fibres  the  marrow  appears 
black. 

4.  Alpaca  and  its  varieties  vicuna  and  llama  have  the  dis- 
advantage of  being  mostly  colored  from  brown  to  black. 
Though  largely  used  in  South  America  for  the  production  of 
various  fabrics,  they  do  not  find  much  application  in  the  general 
textile  industry.  There  is  another  product  in  trade  which  goes 
by  the  name  of  vicuna  (French  vicogne)  which  must  not  be 
confused  with  the  true  South  American  fibre,  it  being  simply 
a  trade  name  for  a  mixture  of  cotton  and  wool.  The  name 
alpaca  is  also  given  to  a  variety  of  wool  substitute.  The  South 
American  wools  often  give  rise  to  wool-sorter's  disease  to  those 
handling  them.  This  disease  is  anthrax  and  is  caused  by  the 
presence  of  a  certain  microbe  in  the  fibre.  Wool-sorter's  disease 
is  caused  by  Bacillus  anthracis,  which  may  enter  the  system 
either  by  the  skin  (through  the  medium  of  an  abrasion  or  cut) 
or  by  the  internal  organs,  being  introduced  with  the  food.  In 
the  former  case  it  gives  rise  to  pustules,  which  become  painful 
and  cause  excessive  perspiration,  fever,  delirium,  and  sundry 
disorders.  In  the  latter  case  it  gives  rise  to  the  most  serious 
results,  leading  to  blood-poisoning  and  inflammation  of  the  lungs, 
which  often  prove  speedily  fatal. 

True  alpaca  is  obtained  from  the  cultivated  South  American 
goat  Auchenia  paco.  It  occurs  in  all  varieties  of  colors,  from 
white,  through  brown,  to  black.  The  reddish-brown  and  not 
the  white  variety,  however,  is  the  most  valuable.  Like  other 
goat-hairs,  alpaca  consists  of  two  varieties  of  fibres,  a  soft  wool- 
hair  and  a  stiff  beard-hair.  The  wool-hairs  of  the  reddish-brown 
variety  are  from  10  to  20  cm.  in  length  and  from  12  to  35  /z  in 
diameter  (see  Fig.  22).  The  fibre  is  very  smooth,  the  serrations 
on  the  edge  being  faint  and  indistinct,  and  the  scales  are  almost 


8o  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES 

imperceptible  and,  in  many  cases,  apparently  absent  altogether; 
the  diameter  is  also  very  uniform,  and  there  are  coarse  brown 
longitudinal  striations  but  no  medulla,  though  isolated  medullary 
cells  are  at  times  observed.  The  wool-hairs  of  the  white  variety 
are  very  distinctly  serrated  on  the  edge,  and  the  fibre  is  not  so  uni- 
formly thick.  The  beard-hairs  of  the  brown  variety  are  compara- 
tively few  in  number,  are  from  5  to  6  mm.  in  length  and  about  60  /* 


FlG.  22. — Alpaca  Fibres.     (X35Q.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

in  diameter,  and  the  latter  is  very  uniform.  A  very  broad  continu- 
ous medullary  cylinder  is  present,  45  to  50  /z  wide;  the  medullary 
cells  are  very  indistinct,  but  are  filled  writh  coarse  granules  of  mat- 
ter. The  cortical  layer  shows  occasional  fissures,  and  the  brown 
coloring-matter  is  principally  distributed  through  the  external  cor- 
tical layer,  though  very  irregularly.  The  beard-hairs  of  the  white 
variety  also  occur  rather  sparingly;  they  are  from  20  to  30  cm. 
in  length,  and  35  \i  in  thickness  at  the  lower  end  and  about  55  /z 
towards  the  upper  end.  The  medulla  is  broad  and  continuous, 
and  nearly  always  filled  with  a  coarsely  granulated  matter  of  a 


MINOR  HAIR  FIBRES.  8 1 

gray  color.  The  medulla  consists  of  a  single  row  of  short  cylin- 
drical cells,  but,  as  the  walls  are  very  thin,  the  cells  are  to  be 
seen  only  with  difficulty.  The  cortical  layer  is  coarsely  striated 
and  frequently  shows  fibrous  fissures;  the  edge  of  the  fibre  is 
not  sharply  serrated. 

5.  Vicuna  Wool  is  another  South  American  product  ob- 
tained from  Auchenia  mccunia,  the  smallest  of  this  general  class 
of  goat-like  camels.  It  is  not  a  cultivated  animal,  and  is  evidently 


FIG.  23. — Vicuna  Fibres.     (X35Q.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

disappearing,  hence  the  fibre  is  not  met  with  in  trade  to  any 
great  extent  at  the  present  time.  It  is  a  soft,  delicate  fibre,  usually 
of  a  reddish-brown  color,  and  much  resembles  alpaca.  It  also 
shows  the  presence  of  a  fine  wool-hair  and  a  coarse  beard-hair; 
the  former  is  from  10  to  20  JJL  in  diameter,  while  the  latter  is  75  /* 
wide.  The  scales  of  the  wool- hair  are  very  regular  and  rather 
easy  to  distinguish,  but  generally  no  medulla  is  to  be  seen.  The 
cortical  layer  is  fnely  striated  and  frequently  contains  fibrous 
fissures.  The  beard- hairs,  however,  show  a  well-developed 
medulla,  mostly  dark  in  color.  The  fibres  of  the  wool- hair  are 
very  uniform  in  diameter  and  about  20  cm.  in  length. 


82 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


An  artificial  wool  substitute  also  goes  by  the  name  of  vicuna 
or  vicogne  yarn,  but  bears  no  resemblance  to  the  true  South  Ameri- 
can fibre.  It  consists  principally  of  a  mixture  of  cotton  \\ith 
sheep's  wool,  but  is  frequently  mixed  more  or  less  with  wools 
and  coarse  beard-hairs  of  poor  spinning  qualities  obtained  from 
various  goats  (of  Asia  Minor),  from  camels,  and  from  South 


FlG.  24. — Fibres  of  Alpaca.     (Hohnel.)     (X35O.) 

a,  beard-hair  containing  medulla;  b,  wool-hair  free  from  medulla;  e,  cusp-like 
scales,  thin  and  broad;  k,  granulated  streaks  on  the  fibrous  layer;  m,  medul- 
lary cylinders;  z,  small  medullary  cells. 

American  wools.  It  is  of  poor  quality  and  generally  yellowish 
brown  in  color.  It  is  only  used  for  felted  materials  or  for  very 
coarse  fabrics. 

6.  The  Llama  fibre  exhibits  scarcely  any  visible  surface  scales, 
but  has  well-developed  isolated  medullary  cells.  It  also  consists  of 
two  classes  of  fibres,  both  of  which  show  longitudinal  striations. 
The  wool-hair  is  from  20  to  35  //  in  diameter,  while  the  beard- hair 
averages  150  //.  The  llama  wool  comes  from  the  Auchenia  llama, 


MINOR.  HAIR   FIBRES.  83 

a  cultivated  animal.  The  wool  from  another  variety,  Auchenia 
huanaco,  is  used  to  some  extent  in  South  America,  though  it 
seldom  appears  as  such  in  general  trade.  This  latter  animal  is 
not  cultivated,  but  is  hunted  wild,  and  is  gradually  disappearing. 
Huanaco  and  llama  are  nearly  always  mixed  more  or  less  with 
alpaca  and  brought  into  trade  under  the  latter  name.  There  is 
but  little  difference  to  be  found  among  these  three  fibres,  owing 
to  the  close  relationship  of  the  animals  from  which  they  are 


FIG.  25. — Llama  Fibres.     (X35O.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

derived,  and  more  especially  as  different  portions  of  the  fleece 
from  all  varieties  of  Auchenia  give  wools  of  entirely  different 
quality,  with  respect  to  color,  fineness  of  staple,  and  purity  from 
coarse  stiff  hairs;  and  the  corresponding  portions  from  the  differ- 
ent animals  are  usually  graded  together. 

7.  Camel-hair  is  used  to  quite  an  extent  in  clothing  material, 
and  is  characterized  by  great  strength  and  softness.  It  has  con- 
siderable color  in  the  natural  state,  which  does  not  appear  capa- 
ble of  being  destroyed  by  bleaching;  hence  camel-hair  is  either 


84 


THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


used  in  its  natural  condition  or  is  dyed  in  dark  colors.  There  are 
two  distinct  growths  of  fibre  on  the  camel:  the  wool- hair,  which 
is  a  fine  soft  fibre,  largely  employed  for  making  Jager  cloth, 
and  the  beard-hair,  which  is  much  coarser  and  stiffer,  and  is 
mostly  used  for  carpets,  blankets,  etc.  Both  fibres  show  faint 
markings  of  scales  on  the  surface  and  well-developed  longitudinal 
striations.  The  beard-hair  always  exhibits  the  presence  of  a 
well-defined  medulla,  which  is  large  and  continuous,  while  the 


FIG.  26. — Camel-hair.     (X35O.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

wool-hair  either  shows  only  isolated  medullary  cells  or  none  at 
all.  The  diameter  of  the  wool-hair  is  from  14  to  28  /*,  while 
the  beard-hair  averages  75/4  (see  Fig.  26).  The  wool-hairs  are 
about  5  to  6  cm.  in  length,  are  rather  regularly  waved,  and  are 
usually  yellow  to  brown  in  color;  while  the  others  are  about  10  cm. 
long  and  are  dark  brown  to  black  in  color.  The  epidermal  scales 
of  the  latter  are  quite  rough,  which  gives  the  edge  of  the  fibre  a 
saw-toothed  appearance.  The  presence  of  large  spots,  or  motes, 
of  brown  coloring-matter,  especialy  in  the  medulla,  is  quite  char- 
acteristic. These  are  usually  granular  in  form.  The  beard- 


MINOR  HAIR  FIBRES.  85 

hairs  of  the  camel  are  to  be  distinguished  from  corresponding 
cow-hairs  by  smaller  diameter,  thicker  epidermis,  and  narrower 
medullary  cells  with  thicker  walls,  which  are  generally  darker  in 
color  than  the  enclosed  pigment-matter. 

8.  Cow-hair  is  extensively  employed  as  a  low-grade  fibre  for 
the  manufacture  of  coarse  carpet  yarns,  blankets,  and  a  variety 
of  cheap  felted  goods.  It  is  seldom  used  alone,  however,  on 
account  of  its  short  staple.  It  comes  principally  from  Siberia. 
The  diameter  of  cow-hair  varies  from  84  to  179  /*  and  the 
length  from  i£  to  5  cm.  The  fibres  occur  in  a  variety  of  colors, 
including  white,  red,  brown,  and  black.  In  its  microscopic 
appearance  the  surface  of  the  f.bre  is  rather  lustreless;  the  ends 
are  very  irregular,  being  blunt  and  divided.  The  medullary  canal 
is  well  marked,  occupying  about  one- half  the  diameter  at  the  base 
and  tapering  towards  the  free  end,  where  it  occupies  only  one-fourth 
the  diameter.  Isolated  medullary  cells  are  also  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. Cow-hair  (including  also  calf-hair)  nearly  always  shows 
the  hair-root,  as  the  fibres  are  removed  from  the  hide  by  liming 
and  pulling.  • 

Cow-hair  also  shows  the  presence  of  three  kinds  of  f.bres: 
(i)  Thick,  stiff  beard-hairs  from  5  to  10  cm.  in  length,  and 
retaining  a  long  narrow  hair  follicle;  above  this  is  the  neck  of 
the  hair,  containing  a  medullary  cylinder  consisting  of  a  single 
series  of  cells  as  well  as  isolated  medullary  cells.  At  this  part  of 
the  f.bre  the  epidermal  scales  are  very  thin  and  broad,  and  the 
forward  edges  present  a  serrated  appearance;  the  neck  of  the 
hair  is  about  120  p.  in  thickness.  Above  this  the  hair  rapidly 
increases  to  about  130  //  in  thickness,  and  the  medullary  cylinder 
becomes  broad  (75  fi)  and  consists  of  narrow  brick-shaped  ele- 
ments, arranged  one  on  top  of  the  other.  The  cortical  layer  is 
finely  striated,  the  epidermis  is  indistinct,  and  the  edge  of  the 
fibre  is  smooth.  The  medullary  cells  are  very  thin-walled  and 
contain  a  considerable  amount  of  finely  granulated  matter. 
Towards  the  pointed  end  the  fibre  becomes  colorless,  and  shows 
distinct  fibrous  fissures;  the  medullary  cylinder  disappears,  but 
the  epidermis  is  not  altered.  The  chief  difference  between 
these  hairs  and  the  beard-hairs  of  the  goat  is  that  in  the  former 


86 


THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


the  medullary  cells  consist  of  only  a  single  series,  and  are  very 
thin-walled,  and  are  also  frequently  isolated  from  one  another, 
while  they  are  filled  with  finely  granulated  matter. 

(2)  Soft,  fine,  beard- hairs  possessing  the  same  general  struc- 
ture as  the  foregoing,  but  not  so  thick,  the  neck  of  the  hair  being 
7^  u  in  diameter  and  not  possessing  any  medulla.  Above  this  the 
medullary  cylinder  consists  of  very  thin-walled  cells  arranged  in 
isolated  groups;  the  epidermal  scales  overlap  one  another  and 


FIG.  27. — a,   Cow-hair;    b,    Goat-hair.     (Hohnel.)     (X3oo.) 

q,  characteristic   fissures  in  marrow;   m,   marrow   or   medulla    filled    with    air; 

/,  fibrous  fissures;  e,  tile-shaped  scales. 

are  almost  cylindrical,  are  narrow,  and  with  finely  serrated 
edges.  About  i  cm.  from  the  base  the  medullary  cylinder 
becomes  discontinuous  and  breaks  up  into  isolated  medullary 
cells,  which  continue  until  the  middle  of  the  fibre  is  reached,  where 
they  disappear  completely;  towards  the  pointed  end  of  the  fibre 
they  reappear  and  again  become  a  continuous  cylinder,  consisting 
of  only  a  single  series  of  cells,  however.  These  are  well  filled 
with  a  dark  medullary  substance. 


MINOR  HAIR  FIBRES. 


(3)  Very  fine  soft  wool-hairs,  free  from  medulla,  and  at  most 
only  i  to  4  cm.  in  length,  and  frequently  only  20  //  in  thickness. 
The  epidermal  scales  are  rough,  causing  the  edge  of  the  fibre  to 
be  uneven  and  have  a  serrated  appearance.  The  hairs  also  show 
frequent  longitudinal  fibrous  fissures. 

Calf-hair  has  the  same  general  structure  and  appearance, 
though  there  is  a  greater  amount  of  soft  wool-hairs  present. 

9.  Minor  Hair  Fibres.  —  Horse-hair  has 
a  diameter  of  80  to  100  //  and  a  length  of 
i  to  2  cm.  (see  Fig.  28).  Like  cow-  hair,  it 
also  occurs  in  a  variety  of  different  colors. 
Horse-hair  is  more  lustrous  than  the  fore- 
going, however,  and  though  when  viewed 
under  the  microscope  the  ends  of  the  fibre 
are  irregular  and  often  forked,  they  taper 
off  to  points.  The  medullary  cylinder  is 
rather  large,  occupying  about  two-thirds 
of  the  diameter  at  the  base  of  the  fibre 
and  tapering  to  about  one-fourth  of  the 
diameter  at  the  free  end.  The  medulla 
consists  of  one  to  two  rows  of  very  narrow 
leaf-shaped  cells.  Isolated  medullary  cells 
are  of  frequent  occurrence,  especially  at  the 
point.  The  cortical  layer  frequently  con- 
tains numerous  short  orifices  or  fissures. 
These  remarks  refer  to  the  body-hairs  of 
the  horse;  the  hairs  of  the  tail  and  mane 
are  much  longer,  reaching  from  several 
inches  to  a  foot  or  more.  They  find  little  scales;/,  fibrous  fissures. 
or  no  use  in  ordinary  textiles,  but  are  much  used  as  stuffing 
materials  in  the  manufacture  of  upholstery. 

Cat-hair  varies  in  diameter  from  14  to  34  /*  and  in  length 
from  i  to  2  cm.  The  fibres  occur  in  a  variety  of  colors  and  have 
a  good  lustre.  The  ends  are  quite  regular  and  very  pointed. 
The  medullary  canal  contains  a  single  series  of  regular  cells 
occupying  one-half  to  three-fifths  of  the  diameter  of  the  fibre. 
The  cortical  layer  is  well  developed,  and  its  inner  face  is  grooved 


FIG.  28.—  Horse-hair. 

<X9°-)    (H°hne1-) 
oad  medullary  cyiin- 

der;  t,  thin-walled  cells 

of  same;   e,  epidermal 


88 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


so  as  to  fit  over  the  medullary  cells.     There  is  a  thin  irregular 
epidermis  which  envelops  the  fibre  (see  Fig.  29). 

Rabbit-hair  fibres  are  usually  light  brown  in  color  and  meas- 


FIG.  29.— Hairs  of  Cat.     (X34O.)     (Hohnel.) 

;  to  ^  beard-hairs;  4  to  6,  wool-hairs;  gs,  near  the  end  of  hair;  gm,  middle  of 
hair;  gb,  near  base  of  hair;  -urn,  middle  of  wool-hair;  ws,  point  of  wool-hair; 
/,  fibrous  fissures;  m,  medullary  cells;  z,  serrated  edge  of  medulla;  r,  tooth- 
like  farmation  of  epidermal  scales. 

ure  from  34  to  120  //  in  diameter,  and  from  i  to  2  cm.  hi  length. 
The  medullary  canal  is  filled  with  several  series  of  cells,  quad- 
rangular in  shape  and  with  thin  walls.  They  are  also  arranged 


MINOR  HAIR  FIBRES. 


89 


in  a  very  regular  manner.  By  careful  observation  spiral  stria- 
tions  may  be  noticed  on  the  finer  fibres.  The  epidermal  scales 
are  very  thick  and  their  forward  edges  terminate  hi  a  sharp  point 
(see  Fig.  30).  Each  scale  is  placed  cornucopia-like  into  the  next 


FIG.  30.— Hair  of  Rabbit.     (X340.)     (Hohnel.) 

w,  wool-hairs;  gm,  middle  and  broadest  part  of  beard-hair;  qu,  cross-section  of 
beard-hair;  gb,  base  of  beard-hair;  e,  cusp-like  scales;  i,  medullary  islands; 
m,  n,  medullary  cells  with  granular  contents;  p,  k,  pigment  plate-like  cells. 

lower  one,  and  is  drawn  out  into  i  to  3  large  waves.  At  the  base 
of  the  fibre  the  medulla  consists  of  a  single  row  of  cells,  above 
the  middle  this  increases  to  2  to  4  rows,  and  further  along  the  fibre 
the  number  of  rows  of  cells  increases  up  to  8,  when  the  hair 


90  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

becomes  very  wide.  Like  most  pelt-hairs,  the  fibres  are  somewhat 
flattened  at  the  base,  and  quite  so  at  their  broadest  part.  The 
cortical  layer  is  only  apparent  towards  the  point  where  the  medulla 
ceases.  The  fine  wool-hairs  of  the  rabbit  are  much  thinner  than 
the  above,  the  greatest  thickness  being  about  20  /z.  Otherwise 
they  correspond  in  structure  to  that  part  of  the  above  fibre  near 
the  base. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

SILK:   ITS   ORIGIN   AND   CULTIVATION. 

i.  General  Considerations. — The  silk  fibre  consists  of  a  con- 
tinuous thread  which  is  spun  by  the  silkworm.  The  worm  winds 
the  fibre  around  itself  in  the  form  of  an  enveloping  cocoon  before 
it  passes  into  the  chrysalis  or  pupal  state.  The  cocoon  is  ovoid  in 
shape  and  is  composed  of  one  continuous  fibre,  which  varies  in 
length  from  350  to  1200  meters  (400  to  1300  yards),  and  has  an 
average  diameter  of  0.018  mm.  In  the  raw  state  the  fibre  con- 
sists of  a  double  thread  cemented  together  by  an  enveloping  layer 
of  silk-glue,  and  is  yellowish  and  translucent  in  appearance.  When 
boiled  off  or  scoured  these  double  threads  are  separated,  and  the 
silk  then  appears  as  a  single  lustrous  almost  white  fibre.  Unlike 
both  wool  and  cotton,  silk  is  not  cellular  in  structure,  and  is  appar- 
ently a  continuous  filament  devoid  of  structure.  Hohnel,  however, 
believes  that  the  silk  fibre  is  not  so  simple  in  structure  as  would  at 
first  be  believed.  The  surface  of  the  fibre  frequently  shows  faint 
striations,  which  may  be  rendered  more  apparent  by  treatment 
with  chromic  acid.  Also  by  saturating  the  silk  with  moderately 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  drying,  then  heating  to  80°  to 
100°  C.,  the  fibre  will  be  disintegrated  into  small  filaments,  which 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  made  up  of  a  number  of  minute 
fibrils  firmly  held  together. 

2.  The  Silkworm. — The  silkworm  is  a  species  of  caterpillar,  and 
though  there  are  quite  a  number  of  the  latter  which  possess  silk- 
producing  organs,  the  number  which  secrete  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  the  silk  substance  to  render  them  of  commercial  importance  is 
rather  limited.  The  true  silkworms  all  belong  to  the  general  class 
Lepidoptera,  or  scale-winged  insects,  and  more  specifically  to  the 


92  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES 

genus  Bombyx.  The  principal  species  is  the  Bombyx  mori,  or  mul- 
berry silkworm,  which  produces  by  far  the  major  portion  of  the 
silk  that  comes  into  trade.  The  silk  industry  appears  to  have  had 
its  origin  in  China,  and  historically  it  dates  back  to  about  2700 
years  B.C.  In  its  early  history  it  is  said  that  the  art  of  cultivat- 
ing the  silkworm  and  preparing  the  f.bre  for  use  was  a  strictly 
guarded  secret  known  only  to  the  royal  family.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, it  spread  through  other  circles  and  soon  became  an  important 
industry  distributed  universally  throughout  China.  The  Chinese 
monopolized  the  art  for  over  three  thousand  years,  but  during 
the  early  period  of  the  Christian  era  the  cultivation  of  the  silk- 
worm (or  sericulture)  was  introduced  into  Japan.  It  also  gradually 
spread  throughout  central  Asia,  thence  to  Persia  and  Turkey. 
In  the  eighth  century  the  Arabs  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the 
silk  industry,  which  soon  spread  through  all  the  countries  in- 
fluenced by  the  Moorish  rule,  including  Spain,  Sicily,  and  the 
African  coast.  In  the  twelfth  century  we  find  sericulture  practised 
in  Italy,  where  it  slowly  developed  to  a  national  industry.  In 
France  sericulture  appears  to  have  been  introduced  about  the 
thirteenth  century,  but  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
that  it  assumed  any  degree  of  importance.  In  more  recent 
times  experiments  have  been  made  on  the  cultivation  of  the 
silkworm  in  almost  every  civilized  country.* 

*  Mr.  Samuel  Whitmarsh,  about  1838,  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to 
attempt  sericulture  in  America.  He  cultivated  the  Motus  multicaulis  in  Penn- 
sylvania, but  the  experiment  proved  to  be  a  failure.  In  later  years  there  have 
been  many  attempts  to  introduce  the  industry  of  sericulture  into  the  United  States, 
and  it  has  been  satisfactorily  demonstrated  that  good  silk  can  be  raised  in  this 
country,  more  especially  in  the  Southern  States.  The  failure  of  the  industry  has 
not  been  due  to  lack  of  proper  climatic  conditions,  but  simply  to  the  high  cost 
of  labor  as  compared  with  Oriental  labor.  With  respect  to  the  amount  of  raw 
material  consumed,  the  United  States  stands  first  among  the  silk  manufacturing 
countries  of  the  world,  though  in  the  value  of  its  manufactures  it  ranks  second. 

For  the  calendar  year  of  1905,  there  were  imported  into  the  United  States 
raw  silk,  or  as  reeled  from  the  cocoon,  15,514,718  pounds,  valued  at  $54,812,294. 
In  addition  to  this  waste  silk  was  imported  to  the  amount  of  nearly  four  million 
pounds.  In  amount  of  value  the  imports  for  1905  were  about  the  same  as  for 
1904,  and  considerably  in  excess  of  that  for  1903.  Of  silk  manufactures,  there 
were  imported  for  1905,  $33,591,144  in  value,  consisting  chiefly,  or  nearly  fifty 
per  cent.,  of  dress  and  piece  goods.  In  this  was  included  over  three  million  dol- 


SILK:    ITS   ORIGIN  AND  CULTIVATION. 


93 


According  to  the  number  of  the  generations  they  produce  in  a 
year,  the  Bombyx  mori  are  divided  into  two  classes :  the  members 
of  the  one  reproduce  themselves  several  times  annually,  and  are 
termed  polyvoltine;  their  cocoons  are  small  and  coarse.  The 
other  worms  have  only  one  generation  in  a  year,  and  hence  are 
termed  annual.  The  cocoons  of  the  latter  are  much  superior 


FIG.  31. — Showing  Different  Stages  in  Growth  of  Silkworm. 

A,  silkworm  in  fifth  period,  full  size;  B,  moth  or  butterfly;  C,  chrysalis,  or  pupa; 

D,  eggs  cf  moth;   E,  diagram  showing  cocoon  and  method  of  winding. 

to  those  of  the  former.  The  cultivation  of  the  silkworm  starts 
with  the  proper  care  and  disposition  of  the  eggs.*  With  the 

lars'  worth  of  spun  silk.  According  to  this,  about  one-fourth  of  the  value  of 
the  American  consumption  of  silk  manufactures  was  imported,  and  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  value  of  silk  dress  goods  consumed  in  this  country  was  of  foreign 
make. 

*  There  are  two  kinds  of  silkworm  culture:  one  for  produciion  and  one 
for  breeding.  The  object  in  the  first  case  is  to  get  the  greatest  yield  of  cocoons, 
and  with  a  little  training  may  be  carried  on  by  any  one  of  ordinary  intelligence. 

The  object  in  culture  for  breeding  is  to  secure  eggs  free  from  hereditary 
taint  of  disease,  and  experts  only  can  be  depended  on  for  this  culture.  Besides 


94 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


annual  worms  there  elapse  about  ten  months  between  the  time 
the  eggs  are  laid  and  their  hatching.  The  hatching  only  takes 
place  after  the  eggs  have  been  exposed  to  the  cold  for  seme  time 
and  are  subsequently  subjected  to  the  influence  of  heat.  When 
the  eggs  are  laid  by  the  silk-moth  they  are  received  on  cloths,  to 
which  they  stick  by  virtue  of  a  gummy  substance  which  encloses 
them.  For  the  first  few  days  they  are  hung  up  in  a  room,  the. 
air  of  which  is  kept  at  a  certain  degree  of  humidity — about  semi- 
saturation.  Then  comes  a  period  of  hibernation,  during  which 
the  eggs  are  kept  in  a  cool  place;  at  present  artificial  refrigeration 


FIG.  32. — The  Silkworm. 

i,  head;   2-10,  12,  rings;    n,  horn;   13,  articulated  legs;  14,  abdominal  or  false 
legs;  15,  false  legs  on  last  ring. 

is  resorted  to  in  many  establishments.  The  period  of  hibernation 
lasts  about  six  months.  After  this  comes  the  period  of  incubation, 
in  which  the  embryo  is  gradually  developed  into  a  worm  and 
the  egg  is  hatched.  The  hatching  usually  takes  place  in  heated 
compartments,  in  which  the  temperature  is  carefully  regulated. 
The  period  of  incubation  occupies  about  thirty  days,  though 
this  time  has  been  shortened  considerably  by  certain  artifices, 
such  as  the  action  of  electric  discharges.  Twenty-five  grams 
of  eggs  will  yield  about  36,0x20  worms  on  hatching.  The  cater- 
pillar, on  first  making  its  appearance,  is  about  3  mm.  long,  and 

a  careful  physiological  examination  throughout  the  rearing,  the  body  of  the  mother 
moth  is  microscopically  tested  after  death,  and  her  eggs  are  not  retained  if  signs 
of  disease  are  discovered.  In  this  way  the  birth  of  healthy  worms  is  insured. 
Pasteur  first  applied  this  method  of  selecting  silkworm  eggs,  and  thus  checked 
the  plague  (pebrine)  which  was  rapidly  destroying  silkworm  culture  in  Europe. 
(Silkworm  Culture,  Bull.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 


SILK:   ITS  ORIGIN  AND   CULTIVATION.  95 

weighs  approximately  0.0005  gram.  Its  growth  and  development 
proceeds  with  extraordinary  rapidity,  and  during  its  short  exist- 
ence it  undergoes  a  number  of  very  curious  transformations. 
Under  normal  conditions  there  elapse  thirty-three  to  thirty-four 
days  between  the  time  of  the  hatching  of  the  egg  and  the  com- 
mencement of  the  spinning  of  the  cocoon.  During  this  time 
the  worm  sheds  its  skin  four  times,  and  these  periods  of  moulting 
divide  the  life- history  of  the  worm  into  five  periods.*  Almost 
immediately  after  being  hatched  the  worms  commence  to  devour 
mulberry  leaves  with  great  avidity,  and  continue  to  eat  throughout 
the  five  periods,  though,  when  about  to  shed  their  skins,  they  stop 
eating  for  a  time  and  become  motionless.  The  size  and  weight 
of  the  caterpillars  increase  with  remarkable  rapidity;  during 
the  fifth  period  they  reach  their  greatest  development,  measur- 
ing from  8  to  9  cm.  in  length  (see  Fig.  32)  and  weighing  from 
4  to  5  grams,  and  after  thus  maturing  they  begin  to  diminish  in 
weight.  The  following  table  by  Vignon  shows  the  relative  weights 
of  the  silkworm  during  the  different  stages  of  its  existence. 
The  figures  refer  to  the  weight  of  36,000  worms. 

Grams. 

Eggs 2S 

Worms  (36,000) 17 

First  period  (5  to  6  days) 255 

Second  period  (4  to  5  days) 1,598 

Third  period  (6  to  7  days) 6,800 

Fourth  period  (7  to  8  days) 27,676 

Fifth  period  (n  to  12  days) 161,500 

At  maturity 131,920 

Cocoons 76,250 

Chrysalis  alone 66,300 

Butterflies,  half  of  each  sex 99,865 

Thus  we  see  that  in  less  than  forty  days  the  weight  of  the 
silkworm  increases  almost  10,000  times. 

When  the  worm  has  reached  the  limit  of  its  growth,  it  ceases 

*  The  length  of  time  occupied  in  these  different  ages  approximates  as  follows: 
ist,  from  birth  to  first  moult,  5  to  6  days, 
ad,  from  first  to  second  moult,  4  days. 
3d,  from  second  to  third  moult,  4  to  5  days. 
4th,  from  third  to  fourth  moult,  5  to  7  days. 
5th,  from  fourth  moult  to  maturity,  7  to  12  days. 


96 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


to  eat,  and  commences  to  diminish  in  size  and  weight.  The  time 
is  now  ready  for  the  spinning  of  its  cocoon;  the  worm  perches 
on  the  twigs  so  disposed  to  receive  it  and  exudes  a. viscous  fluid 
from  the  two  glands  hi  its  body  wherein  the  silk  secretion  is 
formed.  The  liquid  flows  through  two  channels  hi  the  head  of 
the  worm  into  a  common  exit-tube,  where  also  flows  the  secre- 
tion of  two  other  symmetrically  situated  glands  which  cements 
the  two  threads  together.  Consequently,  the  thread  of  raw 
silk  is  produced  by  four  glands  in  the  worm;  the  two  back  ones 
secrete  the  fibroin  which  gives  the  double  silk  fibre,  while  the 
two  front  glands  secrete  the  silk-glue  or  sericin  which  serves  as  an 


FIG.  33. — Cross-section  of  Silk-cocoon. 

a,  silkworm  at  completion  of  cocoon;   b,  after  development  of  chrysalis  with  cast- 
off  skin  of  larva  beneath. 

integument  and  cementing  substance.*  On  emerging  from  the 
spinneret  in  the  head  of  the  worm  the  fibre  coagulates  on  con- 
tact with  the  air.f 

The  worm  weaves  this  thread  around  itself,  layer  after  layer, 
until  the  cocoon  or  shell  is  gradually  built  up.J  It  requires  about 

*  According  to  Bolley  the  gknds  in  the  silkworm  which  secrete  the  fibre- 
producing  liquids  contain  only  glutinous,  semi-fluid  fibroin  without  admixture 
with  sericin,  the  latter  compound  being  a  product  of  the  subsequent  oxidalicn 
of  the  fibroin  by  the  air. 

t  The  contents  of  the  glands  of  the  silkworm  have  been  the  subject  of  study 
in  a  peculiar  manner  by  Chappe.  He  triturated  the  glutinous  matter  with  about 
one-third  its  weight  of  water,  and  thus  obtained  a  liquid  from  which  he  was  en- 
abled to  blow  variously  shaped  vessels  of  a  very  permanent  character.  (Ann.  de 
Chim.,  vol.  n,  p.  113.) 

J  First  a  net  is  formed  to  hold  the  cocoon  which  is  to  be  spun,  then  the  regu- 


SILK:    ITS  ORIGIN  AND   CULTIVATION. 


97 


three  days  for  the  completion  of  the  cocoon.  After  finishing  the 
winding  of  its  cocoon,  the  enclosed  silkworm  undergoes  a  remark- 
able transformation,  passing  from  the  form  of  a  caterpillar  into 
an  inert  chrysalis  or  pupa,  from  which  condition  it  rapidly  devel- 
ops into  a  butterfly,  which  then  cuts  an  opening  through  the 
cocoon  and  flies  away.*  As  the  integrity  of  the  cocoon-thread 
would  be  destroyed  by  the  escape  of  the  butterfly  and  hence  lose 
much  of  its  value,  it  is  desirable  that  the  development  of  the  chrys- 
alis be  stopped  before  it  proceeds  too  far,  and  this  is  accomplished 


FIG.  34.— The  Silk-moth,     a,  male;  b,  female. 

by  killing  it  by  a  heat  of  from  70°  to  80°  C.  or  by  live  steam. 
The  cocoons  at  this  stage  weigh  from  1.25  to  2.5  grams  each, 

lar  spinning  begins  and  the  form  of  the  cocoon  is  designed.  It  is  calculated  that 
with  its  head  alone  the  silkworm  makes  69  movements  every  minute,  describ- 
ing arcs  of  circles,  crossed  in  the  form  of  the  figure  8.  Meanwhile  the  web  grows 
closer  and  the  veil  thickens,  and  in  about  72  hours  the  worm  is  completely  shut 
up  in  its  cocoon,  which  serves  it  as  a  protective  covering.  (Silkworm  Culture, 
Bull.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

*  The  worm  in  spinning  the  cocoon  leaves  one  end  less  dense,  so  that  the 
threads  open  freely  to  permit  the  egress  of  the  moth.  By  the  aid  of  an  alkaline 
fluid  the  moth  softens  and  parts  the  threads  and  liberates  itself.  (Silkworm 
Culture.) 


98  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

and  of  this  15  to  16  per  cent,  is  silk  fibre.*  However,  only  8  to 
10  per  cent,  is  available  for  silk  filaments,  the  remainder,  6  to 
7  per  cent.,  constituting  waste  and  broken  threads,  and  is  utilized 
for  spun  silk.f  As  to  the  thickness  of  the  filaments  of  silk  in 
the  cocoon,  Haberlandt  furnishes  the  following  data. 

*  The  proportion  of  silk  in  a  cocoon  varies  according  to  the  race  and  also  to 
the  regimen  to  which  the  worm  has  been  subjected.  The  average  normal  cocoon  at 
the  time  it  is  sold  is  thus  composed: 

Per  Cent. 

Water 68. 2 

Silk 14-3 

Web  and  veil 7 

Chrysalis 16.8 

(Silkworm  Culture.) 

•}•  There  are  several  different  varieties  of  waste  silk,  as  follows : 

1.  The  refuse  obtained  in  raising  the  silkw.orm,  called  watt  silk  in  commerce. 
Owing  to  the  scientific  methods  of  silk-culture  in  Europe,  the  amount  obtained 
from  this  source  is  very  small.     China,  however,  exports  a  large  amount  vearly. 
This  material  contains  about  35  per  cent,  of  pure  silk,  and  is  the  poorest  grade 
of  waste  silk  on  account  of  its  irregularity. 

2.  The  irregularly  spun  and  tangled  silk  on  the  outside  of  the  cocoon,  called 
floss  silk  or  frisons.     It  comprises  from  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  entire  cocoon, 
and  is  valuable  owing  to  its  purity  and  fine  quality. 

3.  The  residue  of  the  cocoon  after  reeling;   this  forms  an  inner  parchment-like 
skin,  and  in  commerce  goes  under  the  name  of  ricotti,  wadding,  neri,  galettame, 
basinetto,  etc. 

4.  Cocoons  imperfect  from  various  causes,  such  as  being  punctured  by  the 
worms,  becoming  spotted  by  pupa  breaking,  etc.     These  are  known  as  cocons, 
perces,  piques,  tarmate,  rugginose,  etc.     It  forms  a  valuable  material  for  floss- 
silk  spinning. 

5.  Double  cocoons,  which,  in  spite  of  the  difficulty  in  reeling,  were  formerly 
used  for  special  purposes.      Now  such  cocoons  are  converted  into  waste  which 
is  know  as  strussa. 

6.  W^aste  obtained  in  reeling  the  cocoons,  known  as  frisonnets. 

7.  A  great  variety  of  wild  silks,  which,  for  the  most  part,  cannot  be  reeled, 
and  are,  therefore,  first  converted  into  waste.     A  large  quantity  of  wild  silk, 
even  though  it  can  be  reeled,  is  torn  up  for  waste. 

8.  Waste  made  by  reeling,  spooling,  and  other  processes  of  working  silk. 
Silk  shoddy  resembles  wool  shoddy  in  origin,  consisting  of  recovered  fibres 

from  manufactured  silk  goods.  It  nearly  always  contains  isolated  fibres  of  both 
wool  and  cotton,  and  frequently  mixtures  of  different  kinds  of  silk.  There  may 
also  occur  boiled-off,  soupled,  and  raw  silk,  and  mixtures  of  organzine  and  spun 
silk.  Different  colors  are  also  usually  present.  The  fibres,  as  a  rule,  are  quite 
short,  being  about  a  centimeter  in  length.  Due  to  these  components,  silk  shoddy 
is  comparatively  easy  to  recognize  under  the  microscope. 


SILK:    ITS   ORIGIN  AND   CULTIVATION. 


99 


Species. 

Exterior  Layer 
of  Cocoon. 

Middle 
Layer. 

Interior. 
Layer. 

Yellow  French  

0.025     " 

°-°35     " 

0.025     " 

White  Japan  

0.020     " 

o  .  030    '  ' 

o  017     " 

Bivoltin  worms  

o  025     " 

o  o?i;     '  ' 

o  020    '•' 

The  double  silk  fibre  as  it  exists  in  the  cocoon  is  known  as  the 
bave,  and  the  single  filaments  are  called  brins. 

The  size  cf  the  single  silk  filament  as  it  comes  from  the  cocoon 
averages  2\  deniers.*  The  following  table  gives  the  approximate 
size  of  filaments  of  mulberry  silk  from  different  countries 


Country. 

Weight  of  500  Meters. 

Deniers. 

In 

Milligrams. 

Spain    

3-° 
.6 
•  4 
-4 
•3 

.2 

.  I 
.  O 
.2 

16.? 

138 
128 
128 
125 
117 

"3 
1  08 
64 

Italy 

Syria.  

Caucasus  '  
Brousse  

Japan.  .  . 

China 

Bengal  

3.  Diseases  of  the  Silkworm. — The  silkworm  is  particularly 
liable  to  contract  various  diseases,  which  become  more  or  less 
epidemic  in  character.  In  the  early  history  of  sericulture  in 
Europe  the  industry  was  frequently  threatened  with  almost 
total  destruction  by  the  widespread  ravages  of  certain  diseases  of 
the  silkworm.  The  French  chemist  Pasteur  devoted  much 
attention  to  this  subject  and  succeeded  in  devising  means  of 
avoiding  or  preventing  almost  all  such  diseases.  The  principal 
diseases  of  the  silkworm  are  the  following. 

(a]  Pebrine.-\    Worms    afflicted    with    this    disease    develop 

*  See  page  112. 

f  Between  1833  and  1865  the  annual  crop  of  cocoons  in  France  was  reduced 
by  pebrine  from  57,200,000  Ibs.  to  8,800,000  Ibs.  It  was  first  noticed  in  epi- 
demic form  in  France  in  1845,  but  since  then  has  spread  throughout  Asia  Minor 
and  the  Orient. 


100 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


slowly,  irregularly,  and  very  unequally.  Black  spots  are  the 
most  marked  outward  characteristics;  the  internal  signs  are  oval 
corpuscles  visible  only  under  the  microscope.  There  appears 
to  be  no  remedy  for  this  disease,  but  Pasteur  found  it  could  be 
prevented  by  a  microscopical  selection  of  the  eggs,  and  at  the 
present  day  it  causes  but  little  trouble  among  silk-growers. 

(6)  Flacherie  (or  flaccidity)  is  at  present  the  most  dreaded 
disease  among  European  silkworms.  It  usually  affects  the 
worm  after  the  fourth  moult,  or  even  while  spinning,  Without 
apparent  cause  the  worms  begin  to  languish  and  shortly  die. 


B  c 

FIG.  35. — Diseased  Silkworms. 

A,  worm  afflicted  with  flacherie;    B,  worm  emaciated  by  gattine;    C,  calcinated 
worm.     (After  Silkworm  Culture.} 

After  death  they  turn  black  in  color  and  emit  a  disagreeable  odon 
Flacherie  is  apparently  a  form  of  indigestion,  and  may  be 
induced  by  micro-organisms  in  the  intestinal  canal  of  the  worm. 
Contagion  is  usually  prevented  by  dipping  the  eggs  in  a  solution 
of  copper  sulphate,  and  as  the  micro-organisms  causing  flacherie 
persist  alive  from  year  to  year,  very  careful  fumigation  must  be 
instituted  whenever  this  disease  develops. 

(c)  Gattine  shows  itself  externally  by  indifference  of  the  worm 
to  food,  torpor,  and  generally  emaciation.  It  usually  affects 
the  worm  in  the  early  ages,  though  it  is  sometimes  associated  with 
flacherie.  The  best  preventive  against  both  flacherie  and  gattine 
is  a  careful  selection  of  healthy  eggs. 


SILK:   ITS  ORIGIN  AND  CULTIVATION.  101 

(d)  Calcino   (or  muscardine)   at  first  does  not  exhibit  any 
external  characteristics,  but  the  vitality  of  the  worm  is  slowly 
impaired  and  it  feeds  and  moves  but  slowly.     The  body  becomes 
reddish  in  color,  and  gradually  contracts  and  loses  its  elasticity, 
and  the  worm  usually  dies  20-30  hours  after  the  first  symptoms 
of  the  disease.     The  dead  body  dries  up  and  becomes  covered 
with  a  white  chalk-like  efflorescence.     The  disease  is  caused  by 
a  minute  fungus,*  the  spores  of  which  take  root  in  the  body 
of  the  worm,  and  finally  fill  the  entire  body.     Calcino  is  the  most 
contagious  of  the  silkworm  diseases,  and  its  appearance  should 
be  promptly  checked  by  careful  fumigation  with  burning  sulphur. 

(e)  Grasserie  shows  itself  by  the  worms  becoming  restless, 
bloated,  and  yellow  in  color,  and  when  punctured  they  exude 
a  fetid  matter  filled  with  minute  granular  crystals.     The  disease 
is  not  caused  by  microbes,  hence  is  neither  contagious  nor  heredi- 
tary.    Its  chief  cause  is  mismanagement  of  the  worms  at  moulting 
periods  and  uneven  feeding. 

4.  Wild  Silks. — Besides  the  Bombyx  mori,  or  mulberry  silk- 
worm, there  are  other  associated  varieties  of  caterpillars  which 
also  produce  silk  in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  of  considerable 
commercial  importance.  Due  to  the  fact  that  such  silkworms 
are  not  capable  of  being  domesticated  and  artificially  cultivated 
like  the  mulberry  worms,  the  silk  obtained  from  them  is  called 
wild  silk.  Of  this  latter  there  are  several  commercial  varieties, 
of  which  the  most  important  are  here  given. f 

*  There  are  two  varieties  of  this  fungus:  Botrytis  bassiana  and  B.  tevella. 
The  white  chalk-like  appearance  of  the  dead  worm  is  caused  by  the  branches 
of  the  fungus  fructifying  on  the  surface,  and  the  fruit  bursting  envelops  the  worm 
with  innumerable  spores  resembling  a  white  powder. 

f  Attention  has  recently  been  drawn  to  the  possibility  of  obtaining  silk  from 
a  species  of  spider  chiefly  found  in  Madagascar.  This  spider  is  known  as  Nephila 
Madagascariensis.  The  egg-receptacle  is  a  silky  cocoon  about  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter and  of  a  yellow  color.,  but  turning  white  after  several  months'  exposure  to 
the  air.  The  female  spider  alone  produces  the  silk  and  is  about  two  and  a  half 
inches  long.  The  silk  is  reeled  off  from  the  spider  five  or  six  times  in  the  course 
of  a  month,  after  which  it  dies,  having  yielded  about  4,000  yards.  The  reeling 
is  done  by  native  girls;  about  one  dozen  spiders  are  locked  in  a  frame  in  such 
a  manner  that  on  one  side  protrudes  the  abdomen,  while  on  the  other  side  the 
head,  thorax,  and  legs  are  free.  The  ends  of  their  webs  are  drawn  out,  collected 
into  one  thread,  which  is  passed  over  a  metal  hook,  and  the  reel  is  set  in  motion 


102  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Anther  &a  yama-mai,  a  native  of  Japan,  is  a  green- colored 
caterpillar  which  feeds  on  oak-leaves.  Its  cocoon  is  large  and 
of  a  bright  greenish  color.  The  silk  bears  a  close  resemblance 
to  that  of  the  Bombyx  mori,  but  is  not  as  readily  dyed  and  bleached 
as  the  latter. 

Anther cea  pernyi  is  a  native  of  China;  besides  growing  wild, 
it  has  been  domesticated  to  some  extent.  This  worm  also  feeds 
on  oak-leaves,  but  is  of  a  yellow  color.  Its  cocoon  is  quite  large, 
averaging  over  4  cm.  in  length,  and  is  of  a  yellowish  to  a  brown 
color. 

Antheraa  assama  is  a  native  of  India;  it  gives  a  large  cocoon 
over  45  mm.  in, length. 

Anther -aa  mylitta  is  another  Indian  variety,  and  furnishes 
the  so-called  tussah  silk,  though  this  term  has  also  been  applied  in  a 
general  manner  to  all  varieties  of  wild  silk.  The  worms  feed  on 
the  leaves  of  the  castor-oil  plant,  and  give  very  large  cocoons, 
reaching  50  mm.  in  length  and  30  mm.  in  diameter.  The  fibre 
is  much  longer  than  from  the  cocoon  of  the  B.  mori,  and  varies 
from  600  to  2000  yards  in  length.  The  color  of  tussah  silk  varies 
from  a  gray  to  a  deep  brown. 

Another  variety  of  silkworm  which  is  to  be  found  both  in 
Asia  and  America  is  the  Attacus  ricini.  It  gives  a  very  white 
and  good  quality  silk,  the  production  and  value  of  which  is  in- 
creasing every  year.  It  is  known  as  Eria  silk.  The  structure 
of  the  fibre  much  resembles  that  of  tussah  silk.  A  species  of 
this  class,  known  as  Attacus  atlas,  is  perhaps  the  largest  moth 
known;  it  spins  open  cocoons  and  gives  the  so-called  Fagara,  or 
Ailanthus,  silk. 

Wild  silks  are  much  more  difficult  to  unwind  from  the  cocoons 
than  that  of  the  mulberry  silkworm.  Wild  silk  is  also  much 
darker  in  color.  As  the  individual  filaments  are  much  coarser  than 

by  a  pedal.  The  extraction  of  the  web  does  not  apparently  inconvenience  the 
spider.  The  cost  of  the  material  is  high,  as  55,000  yards  of  19  strands  thick- 
ness weighs  only  386  grains,  and  one  pound  of  the  silk  is  worth  $40.  At  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1900,  a  fabric  was  shown,  18  yards  long  by  18  inches  wide, 
containing  100,000  yards  of  spun  thread  of  24  strands,  the  product  of  25,000 
spiders.  It  was  golden  yellow  in  color.  Spinning  spiders  are  also  known  in 
Paraguay,  Venezuela,  and  other  countries.  (See  Jour.  Soc.  Arts,  vol.  53,  p.  620.) 


SILK:    ITS  ORIGIN  AND  CULTIVATION.  103 

those  of  mulberry  silk  the  former,  as  a  rule,  have  greater  strength, 
but  on  reduction  to  a  basis  of  equal  diameters,  the  filaments  of 
mulberry  silk  are  somewhat  stronger,  and  are  much  more  difficult 
to  dye  and  bleach. 

Tussah  (or  tussur)  silk  (as  well  as  other  wild  silks)  is  chiefly 
employed  for  making  pile-fabrics,  such  as  velvet,  plush,  and 
imitation  sealskin. 

5.  The  Microscopical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Silk. — Under 
the  microscope  raw  silk  exhibits  an  appearance  which  readily  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  other  textile  fibres.  It  is^een  as  a  smooth  struc- 
tureless filament,  very  regular  in  diameter  and  very  transparent. 
The  two  brins  in  the  bave  of  raw  silk  give  beautiful  colors  with 
polarized  light  when  examined  microscopically.  The  sericin 
coating,  however,  appears  to  have  no  such  action.  The  latter, 
being  hard  and  brittle,  on  bending  develops  transverse  cracks 
which  are  very  apparent  under  the  microscope. 

The  fibre  of  Bombyx  mori  is  only  rarely  striated  longitudinally, 
and  when  such  striations  do  appear  they  always  run  parallel  to 
the  axis  of  the  fibre.  When  treated  with  dilute  chromic  acid 
very  fine  striations  are  caused  to  appear.  Wild  silks  often  show 
fibres  which  are  twisted  on  their  axes,  and  the  layer  of  gum  is 
usually  more  or  less  granular.  Anthercea  mylitta  shows  rather 
frequent  oblique  striations,  and  does  not  exhibit  much  play  of 
color  with  polarized  light.  This  latter  characteristic  is  also  true 
of  Anther  TO,  yama-mai.  The  other  silks  give  nice  colors  with 
polarized  light.  Silk  fibres  are  colored  a  deep  red  with 
alloxanthin;  fuchsin  also  gives  a  red  color.  On  treatment 
with  sugar  and  sulphuric  acid,  silk  is  first  colored  a  rose-red  and 
then  dissolves;  hydrochloric  acid  gives  a  violet  color  and  then 
dissolves  the  fibre.  lodin  colors  the  fibres  yellow  to  reddish 
brown. 

Carded  silk,  which  has  been  worked  up  from  imperfect  cocoons, 
etc.,  can  usually  be  recognized  under  the  microscope  by  the  irreg- 
ular and  torn  appearance  of  its  external  layer  of  gum. 

The  inner  layers  of  the  cocoon  consist  of  a  yellow  parchment- 
like  skin,  and  when  examined  under  the  microscope  exhibit  a 
matrix  of  sericin,  in  which  numerous  double  fibres  are  imbedded, 


io4 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES 


usually  very  much  flattened  in  cross-section  (Fig.  36,  a).  These 
inner  layers,  of  course,  are  not  capable  of  being  reeled  with  the 
rest  of  the  cocoon,  and  are  used  for  waste  silk.  The  cross- 
sections  of  the  fibres  from  the  middle  portion  of  the  cocoon,  con- 


FIG.  36. — Cross-sections  of  Silk  Fibre. 
a,  from  inner  part  of  cocoon;   b,  from  middle  layers;   c,  from  outer  part;    /,  fibre 
of  fibroin;  s,  layer  of  sericin.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

stituting  the  reeled  silk,  are  much  more  rounded  in  form  and 
are  surrounded  with  a  thinner  layer  of  sericin  (see  Fig.  36,  b). 
The  fibres  of  the  outer  part  of  the  cocoon,  also  utilized  for  waste 
silk,  exhibit  a  rather  irregular  cross-section  (see  Fig.  36,  c}. 


FIG.  37. — Appearance  of  Raw  Silk  (Xsoo)  under  the  Microscope,  showing  the 
Double  Cocoon  Filament  and  the  Irregular  Shreds  of  Silk-glue.  (Micro- 
graph by  author.) 

When  raw  silk  is  examined  under  the  microscope  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  appearance  is  by  no  means  regular,  owing  to  the 


SILK:   ITS  ORIGIN  AND   CULTIVATION. 


'OS 


broken  and  torn  surface  of  sericin  which  surrounds  the  fibre  (see 
Fig-  37)'  Frequently  the  two  filaments  of  fibroin  are  distinctly 
separated  from  one  another  for  considerable  distances,  the  inter- 
vening space  being  filled  in  with  sericin.  Occasionally  the  layer 
of  sericin  is  seen  to  be  entirely  absent,  having  been  removed  by 
breaking  or  rubbing  off.  The  sericin  layer  also  shows  frequent 
transverse  f  ssures,  which  are  merely  cracks  caused  by  the  break- 
ing of  the  sericin  in  the  bending  or  twisting  of  the  fibre.  Creases 
and  folds  in  the  sericin,  as  well  as  irregular  lumps,  are  also  of 
frequent  occurrence.  All  of  these  markings  are  in  nowise  struc- 
tural, and  only  occur  in  the  sericin  layer.  At  times  the  fibroin 
fibre  exhibits  structural  changes  in  places,  such  as  attenuations; 
but  these  only  occur  in  defective  and  unhealthy  silk,  and  give 
rise  to  weak  places.  These  are  caused  by  the  fibroin  not  being 
secreted  by  the  gland  with  sufficient  rapidity  when  the  fibre  is 
being  spun  by  the  worm. 

The  microscopic  appearance  of  the  wild  silks  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  Bombyx  mori.  The  fibres  are  very  broad  and 
thick,  and  in  cross-section  are  very 
flat,  and  often  triangular  in  outline. 
Longitudinally  they  show  very  dis- 
tinct striations  and  peculiar  flat- 
tened markings,  usually  running 
obliquely  across  the  fibre,  and  in 
which  the  striations  become  more 
or  less  obliterated.  These  cross- 
markings  are  caused  by  the  over- 
lapping of  one  fibre  on  another 
before  the  substance  of  the  fibre 

had  completely   hardened,  in  con- 

F.      ',  FIG.  38.— Wild  Silk.     (X25o.) 

sequence  of  which  these  places  are   . 

A,  view  of  narrow  side;   B,  view  of 

more  or  less  flattened  out  (see  Fig.     broad  side.  c>  Cross.secti0n;  D, 

38).       The    Striated    appearance    of      cross-section     of     double    fibre; 

wild  silk  is  evidence  that  structurally     cr>  cross-marks  on  fibre-  (Mici°- 

,       r,,  j     r       •       ,      ,-,  graph  by  author.) 

the  fibre  is  composed  of  minute  fila- 
ments; in  fact  the  latter  may  readily  be  isolated  by  maceration 
in  cold  chromic  acid.     According  to  Hohnel,   these  structural 


io6 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


elements  are  only  0.3  to  1.5  u  in  diameter;  they  run  parallel  to 
each  other  through  the  fibre,  and  are  rather  more  dense  at  the 
outer  portion  of  the  fibre  than  in  the  inner  part  (see  Fig.  39). 
Besides  the  fine  striations  on  the  fibres  of  wild  silk  caused  by 
their  structural  filaments,  there  are  also  to  be  noticed  a  number 
of  irregularly  occurring  coarser  striations.  These  latter  appear 


Fig.  39— Tussah  Silk.     (X34°.) 

A,  view  of  narrow  side;  B,  view  of  broad  side;  C,  flat  surface  of  single  fibre  show- 
ing two  thin  cross-marks  at  i  and  2;  /,  air-canals;  g,  fibrillae,  D,  cross-sec- 
tions; i,  inner  layers;  r,  denser  marginal  layers.  (After  Hohnel.) 

to  be  due  to  air-canals,  or  spaces  between  the  filaments  of  the 
fibre  (see  Fig.  40). 

Hb'lmel  is  of  the  opinion  that  there  is  really  no  difference 
in  kind  between  the  structure  of  wild  silk  and  that  of  cultivated 
silk;  that  is  to  say,  the  fibroin  fibre  of  the  latter  is  also  composed 


SILK:   ITS   ORIGIN  AND   CULTIVATION. 


107 


of  structural  filaments,  only  they  fuse  into  one  another  in  a  more 
homogeneous  manner  on  emerging  from  the  fibroin  glands, 
thus  rendering  it  more  difficult  to  recognize  them  superficially. 
This  view  is  upheld  somewhat  by  the  fact  that  a  slight  striated 
appearance  may  be  noticed  when  the  silk  fibre  is  macerated  in 
chromic  acid  solution.  This  apparent  structure  of  the  silk  fibre, 


FIG.  40. — Cross-section  of  Wild  Silk. 

A,  diagramatic  drawing  of  section;  i,  air-space;  g,  ground  matrix;  /,  fibrillae; 
r,  marginal  layer;  B,  end  of  fibre  of  tussah  silk  swollen  in  sulphuric  acid; 
C,  cross-section  of  fibre  of  tussah  silk  swollen  in  sulphuric  acid.  (After 
Hohnel.) 

however,  may  also  be  due  to  another  cause.  If  a  plastic  glutinous 
mass  (such  as  melted  glue,  for  instance)  be  pulled  out  into  the 
form  of  a  thread  and  allowed  to  harden,  it  will  be  found  to 
exhibit  the  same  striated  structure  as  the  silk  fibre;  and  this 
structure  will  be  more  apparent  if  the  thread  is  pulled  out  and 
hardened  more  rapidly.  The  liquid  fibroin  in  the  glands  of 
the  worm  is  a  plastic  glutinous  mass  analogous  to  melted  glue, 
and  is  pulled  out  into  the  form  of  a  thread  by  the  action  of  the 


i°8  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

worm  in  winding  its  cocoon;  hence  it  would  be  natural  to  expect 
a  striated  structure  similar  to  that  observed  in  the  thread  of 
glue.  Thus,  it  is  possible  to  account  satisfactorily  for  the  struc- 
ture of  the  silk  fibre  in  a  perfectly  natural  manner  without  having 
recourse  to  a  very  doubtful  organic  process  in  the  formation  of 
the  fibre,  such  as  is  supposed  to  be  the  case  by  Hohnel. 

Silk  is  quite  hygroscopic,  and  under  favorable  circumstances 
will  absorb  as  much  as  30  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  moisture 
and  still  appear  dry.  It  is  therefore  customary  to  determine 
the  amount  of  moisture  in  each  lot  at  the  time  of  sale.  This 
is  called  conditioning  (see  page  53),  and  is  usually  carried  out 
in  official  laboratories.  The  amount  of  "regain"  which  is  legally 
permitted  is  u  per  cent.;  this  would  be  equivalent  to  9.91  per 
cent,  of  moisture  in  the  silk.  Boiled-off  silk  appears  to  contain 
somewhat  less  moisture  than  raw  silk,  the  silk  gum  having  a 
greater  attraction,  or  power  of  absorbing  water,  than  the  fibre 
proper.  The  amount  of  moisture  in  boiled-off  silk  is  usually 
regarded  as  about  8.45  per  cent.,  which  would  correspond  to  a 
regain  of  9.25  per  cent. 

Being  a  bad  conductor  of  electricity,  silk  is  readily  electrified 
by  friction,  which  circumstance  at  times  renders  it  difficult  to 
handle  hi  the  manufacturing  process.  The  trouble  can  be 
overcome  to  a  great  extent  by  keeping  the  atmosphere  moist. 

The  most  striking  physical  property  of  silk,  perhaps,  is  its 
high  lustre.  The  lustre  only  appears  after  the  silk  has  been 
scoured  and  the  silk-gum  removed.  The  lustre  of  silk  is  affected 
more  or  less  by  the  various  operations  of  dyeing  and  mordanting, 
and  especially  when  the  silk  is  heavily  weighted.  After  dyeing, 
especially  in  the  skein  form,  silk  usually  undergoes  what  is  termed 
a  lustring  operation,  which  consists  generally  in  stretching  the 
hanks  strongly  by  twisting,  and  simultaneously  steaming  under 
pressure  for  a  few  minutes.  This  process  seems  to  bring  back 
to  a  considerable  extent  the  lustre  of  the  dyed  silk.  Lustring,  or 
"brightening,"  may  also  be  accomplished  by  steeping  the  skeins 
of  silk  in  a  solution  of  dilute  acid,  such  as  acetic  or  tartaric  acid, 
squeezing,  and  drying  without  washing.  The  lustre  is  also 
considerably  affected  by  the  method  of  dyeing  and  the  chemicals 


SILK:   ITS  ORIGIN1  AND  CULTIVATION. 


109 


employed  in  the  dye-bath;  it  has  been  found  that  the  addition 
of  boiled-off  liquor  (the  soap  solution  of  sericin  obtained  in  the 
degumming  of  raw  silk)  to  the  dye-bath  has  the  result  of  pre- 
serving the  lustre  of  the  dyed  silk  better  than  anything  else,  and 
in  consequence  boiled-off  liquor  is  nearly  always  employed  as 
the  assistant  in  dyeing  in  preference  to  Glauber's  salt  or  common 
salt. 

Silk  is  also  distinguished  by  its  great  strength.  It  is  said  that 
its  tensile  strength  is  almost  equal  to  that  of  an  iron  wire  of  equal 
diameter.*  The  silk  fibre  is  also  very  elastic,  stretching  15  to  20 
per  cent,  of  its  original  length  in  the  dry  state  before  breaking. 
Degummed  or  boiled-off  silk  is  somewhat  lower  in  strength  and 
elasticity  than  raw  silk,  the  removal  of  the  silk-gum  apparently 
causing  a  decrease  of  30  per  cent,  in  the  tensile  strength  and 
45  per  cent,  in  the  elasticity.  The  weighting  of  silk  also  causes  a 
decrease  in  its  strength  and  elasticity. 

The  following  table  gives  the  diameter,  elasticity,  and  tensile 
strength  of  the  cocoon-thread  of  the  chief  varieties  of  silks  (Wardle, 
Jour.  Soc.  Arts,  vol.  33,  p.  671). 


Name  of  Silk. 

Coun- 
tiy. 

Diameter. 
Ins. 

Elastici  v, 
Ins.  in  On    Ft. 

Tensile 
Strength, 
Drams. 

Size  of 
Cocoon 

T___ 

Outer 

Inner 

Outer 

I  ner 

Outer 

Inner 

ins. 

Fibres. 

Fibres. 

Fibres. 

F  bres. 

Fibres. 

Fibres. 

Bombyx  mori  

China 

.00052 

.00071 

•3 

•9 

1.6 

2.6 

.1X0.5 

Bombyx  mori  

Italy 

•00053 

.00068 

.2 

•9 

1,9. 

2.6 

.2x0.6 

Bombyx  mori  
Bombyx  fortunatus. 

Japan 
Bengal 

.00057 

.00045 

.00069 
.00051 

.2 

.8 

•4 
•3 

2.0 

1.6 

3-1 

2-8 

.1X0.6 
.2x0.5 

Bombyx  textor.  .  .    . 

India 

.00042 

.00047 

•5 

•9 

1.4 

2.6 

.2x1.5 

Antheraea  mylitta.  .  . 

India 

.00161 

.00172 

•9 

•7 

6.6 

7.8 

.5x0.8 

Attacus  ricini.  .... 

India 

.00085 

00093 

•7 

.0 

*-5 

3-° 

.5x0.8 

Attacus  cynthia  .  .  , 

India 

.00083 

.00097 

.6 

•9 

2-4 

3-5 

.8X0.8 

Antheraea  assama.    . 

India 

.00128 

.00125 

•4 

•9 

2.8 

4.8 

.8X1.0 

Attacus  selene  

India 

.00100 

.00109 

.0 

.8 

2.4 

4.0 

.0X1.2 

Attacus  atlas  

India 

.00102 

.00111 

•9 

.8 

2.1 

4.1 

.5X0.8 

Antheraea  yama-mai. 

Japan 

.00088 

.00096 

.0 

4.0 

6.8 

7-5 

.5X0.8 

Cricula  trifenestrata. 

India 

.COI20 

.0X0.8 

Antheraea  pernyi.  .  .  . 

China 

.00118 

.00138 

2.0 

2.7 

3-2 

"s'-s" 

.6X0.8 

The  density  of  silk  in  the  raw  state  is  1.30  to  1.37,  while 
boiled-off  silk  has  a  density  of  1.25. 

*  The  breaking-strain  of  raw  silk  is  equivalent  to  about  64,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in , 
or  nearl-    o  e-third  that  of  the  best  iron  wire. 


no  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Another  property  of  silk,  and  one  which  is  peculiar  to  this 
fibre,  is  what  is  termed  its  scroop;  this  refers  to  the  crackling 
sound  emitted  when  the  fibre  is  squeezed  or  pressed.  To  this 
property  is  due  the  well-known  rustle  of  silken  fabrics.  The 
scroop  of  silk  does  not  appear  to  be  an  inherent  property  of  the 
fibre  itself,  but  is  acquired  when  the  silk  is  worked  in  a  bath  of 
dilute  acid  (acetic  or  tartaric)  and  dried  without  washing.  A 
satisfactory  explanation  to  account  for  the  scroop  has  not  yet  been 
given;  it  is  probably  due  to  the  acid  hardening  the  surface  of  the 
fibre.  Mercerized  cotton  can  also  be  given  a  somewhat  similar 
scroop  by  such  a  treatment  with  dilute  acetic  acid.  Wool,  under 
certain  conditions  of  treatment,  in  some  degree  can  also  be  given 
this  silk-like  scroop,  as,  for  instance,  when  it  is  treated  with 
chloride  of  lime  solutions  or  with  strong  •  caustic  alkalies. 

6.  Silk-reeling. — The  silk  fibre,  as  it  appears  in  trade  for  use 
in  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  is  obtained  by  unreeling  the  cocoon. 
After  the  cocoons  have  been  spun  by  the  silkworms  they  are  heated 
in  an  oven  for  several  hours  at  a  temperature  of  from  60°  to  70°  C., 
for  the  purpose  of  killing  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  contained  within, 
before  the  latter  shall  have  developed  sufficiently  to  begin  cutting 
its  way  through  the  envelope  and  thus  destroy  the  continuity  of 
the  cocoon-thread  Another  method  of  operation  is  to  steam  the 
cocoons;  this  requires  only  a  few  minutes  to  kill  the  pupa,  and 
is  said  to  be  preferable  to  the  oven-heating,  as  it  causes  less  damage 
to  the  fibre,  and  at  the  same  time  considerably  softens  the  silk- 
glue,  thus  rendering  the  subsequent  process  more  easy.  After 
the  killing  of  the  worms  is  accomplished,  the  cocoons  are  sorted 
into  several  grades,  according  to  size,  color,  extent  of  d:  mage, 
etc.,  after  which  they  are  ready  for  reeling.  This  is  entirely  a 
mechanical  process  requiring  much  skill.  The  cocoons  are 
soaked  in  warm  water  until  the  silk-glue  is  softened;  the  operator 
seizes  the  loose  ends  of  several  fibres  together  on  a  small  brush 
and  passes  them  through  the  porcelain  guides  of  a  reel,  where 
they  are  twisted  together  to  form  threads  of  sufficient  size  for 
weaving.  Two  threads  are  formed  simultaneously  on  each  reel, 
and  are  made  to  cross  and  rub  against  each  other  to  remove 
twists  in  the  fibre  (see  Fig.  41),  and  also  to  rub  the  softened 


SILK;    ITS  ORIGIN  AND   CULTIVATION.  nr 

silk-glue  coverings  together  in  order  that  the  fibres  may  become 
firmly  cemented  and  form  a  uniform  thread.  The  product  so 
obtained  is  termed  raw  silk  or  grege;  floss  silk,  which  is  used 
for  making  spun  silk,  is  the  term  applied  to  the  waste  result- 
ing from  short  and  tangled  fibres  from  the  exterior  of  the  cocoon, 
and  from  those  cocoons  which  have  been  broken  by  the  moth 
in  escaping.  Raw  silk  is  classified  into  two  grades:  (a)  Organ- 
zine  silk,  which  is  made  from  the  best-selected  cocoons,  and  is 


FIG.  41.— Showing  Methods  of  Reeling  the  Silk  Fibre  from  the  Cocoon. 

chiefly  used  for  warps  on  account  of  its  greater  strength ;  and  (b) 
Tram  silk,  which  is  made  from  the  poorer  quality  cocoons,  and 
is  mostly  employed  for  filling.  Floss  or  waste  silk  cannot  be 
reeled,  so  the  cocoon-threads  are  scoured  in  a  solution  of  soda 
and  soap,*  and  afterwards  combed  and  carded  in  special  machines. 
The  bettei  quality  and  longer  fibre  is  worked  up  into  what  is 

*  There  are  two  ways  in  which  waste  silk  may  be  degummed  for  spinning: 
it  may  either  be  boiled  off  or  chapped.  The  former  is  usually  adopted  where  all 
the  gum  is  to  be  removed,  and  is  carried  out  by  tying  the  silk  up  in  bags  and 
boiling  in  a  soap  solution.  In  the  second  method  the  gum  is  loosened  by  a 
process  of  fermentation  and  only  a  portion  of  the  gum  is  removed  according  to 
requirements.  The  process  is  carried  to  such  perfection  that  as  much  as  15  per 
cent,  or  as  little  as  2  per  cent,  of  the  gum  may  be  removed.  In  chapping,  the 
waste  silk  is  piled  in  a  heap  in  a  damp,  warm  place,  and  kept  constantly  moist; 
the  gum  soon  begins  to  ferment  and  soften;  by  continual  turning  of  the  pile  all 
portions  of  the  heap  are  properly  softened,  but  the  process  takes  several  days. 
Another  process  is  to  place  the  silk  in  ciges  and  immerse  in  water  for  several 
days. 


112  THE   TEXTILE' FIBRES. 

known  as  ftorette  silk,  while  the  shorter  fibres  are  carded  and 
spun  into  bourette  silk.*  Floss  silk  is  also  known  as  chappe  or 
frhappe  silk.f 

7.  Determination  of  the  Size  of  Silk  Yarns. — The  fineness  or 
size  of  the  silk  thread  is  expressed  by  a  number  known  as  litre 
(in  French)  or  titolo  (in  Italian);  this  gives  the  number  of  units 
of  certain  weight  (denier  =  53.1 3  mgms.)  a  skein  of  certain  length 
v\  ill  weigh.  Several  different  standards  are  in  use  in  Europe  at 
the  present  time,  among  which  are  the  following: 

Weight  in  Length  in 

Grams.  Metres. 

Denier  (legate) 0.05  450 

Denier  (milano) 0.051  476 

Denier  (turind) 0.0534  476 

Old  denier  (Lyonese) 0.0531  476 

New  denier  (Lyonese) 0.0531  500 

Denier  (international) 0.05  500 


*  Silk  wadding  is  produced  from  the  waste  left  after  bourette  spinning, 
f  According  to  the  composition  and  twist  of  the  threads,  silk  is  classified  into 
the  following: 

(1)  Organzine  (warp  or  Orsey  silk);    from  3  to  8  cocoon  threads  are  lightly 
twisted  together  with  a  right-hand  twist,  so  that  there  are  from  60  to  80  turns  per 
cm.,  and  2  to  3  such  threads  are  twisted  together  left-handed  to  form  double  or 
threefold  organzine. 

(2)  Tram  or  weft  silk;    characterized  by  a  much  lower  degree  of  twist;    the 
individual  threads  consisting  of  3  to  12  cocoon-threads  undergo  no  preliminary 
twist,  and  2  or  3  of  these  are  united  by  loose  twisting,  so  that  the  thread  is  softer 
and  flatter  than  organzine. 

(3)  Marabout  silk;   used  for  making  crape,  2  to  3  threads  being  united  with- 
out any  preliminary  twisting,  then  dyed  without  scouring  and  strongly  twisted; 
a  hard  twist  and  stiffness  are  characteristic  of  this  silk. 

(4)  "Soie  Ondee";    prepared  by  doubling  a  coarse  and  a  fine  thread;    it  is 
mostly  used  for  making  gauze,  and  gives  a  moire  or  watered  appearance. 

(5)  Cordonnet;  4  to  8  twisted  threads  are  combined  by  a  loose  left  twist,  and 
3  of  the  threads  thus  formed  are  united  by  a  right-handed  twist;  this  silk  is  mostly 
used  for  selvages,  braiding,  crocheting,  knitting,  etc. 

(6)  Sewing  silk;   made  from  raw  silk  of  3  to  24  cocoon-threads,  2,  4,  or  6  of 
which  are  united  by  twisting. 

(7)  Embroidery  silk;   consists  of  a  number  of  simple  untwisted  threads  united 
by  a  slight  twisting. 

(8)  Foil  or  single  silk;   a  raw  silk  thread  formed  by  twisting  8  to  10  cocoon- 
threads  and  employed  for  making  gold  and  silver  tinsel.      (Herzfeld,    Yarns  and 
Textile  Fabrics,  p.  89.) 


SILK:    ITS  ORIGIN  AND   CULTIVATION.  113 

•» 

The  titre  is  usually  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  fraction,  repre- 
senting limits  of  variation,  as  all  skeins  are  not  of  absolutely  the 
same  size.  A  silk  marked  18/20,  for  instance,  would  mean  that 
it  varied  from  18  to  20  deniers. 

The  international  denier  may,  perhaps,  be  more  conveniently 
denned  as  being  the  weight  (in  grams)  of  1 0,000  metres.  The  basis 
for  the  sizing  of  thrown  silk  in  England  and  the  United  States  is 
the  weight  in  drams  of  i  ,000  yards.  To  convert  this  measure  into 
deniers,  it  is  necessary  to  multiply  by  the  factor  33.36.  For  ex- 
ample, if  i  .000  yards  of  silk  weigh  3  drams,  it  would  be  equivalent 
to  33.36X3  =  100.08  deniers.  In  France  the  size  of  the  silk  is 
usually  expressed  in  terms  of  the  old  denier,  which  was  the  weight 
in  deniers  of  400  French  ells.  The  latter  length  is  equivalent 
to  476  metres,  and  the  denier  is  equal  to  0.05313  gram.*  Hence, 
to  obtain  the  size  in  deniers  according  to  this  system,  multiply  the 
weight  in  grams  of  476  metres  by  the  factor  18.82  (  =  i  -1-0.05313). 
For  example,  if  476  metres  of  silk  weigh  5  grams,  this  would  be 
equivalent  to  5X18.82=94.1  deniers.  To  obtain  the  deniers 
under  the  new  measure,  the  weight  in  grams  of  500  metres  is 
multiplied  by  the  factor  of  18.82.  The  legal  measure  in  France 
of  the  size  of  silk  is  represented  by  the  weight  in  grams  of  500 
metres,  but  it  is  probably  more  usual  to  express  the  size  in  terms 
of  deniers.  To  convert  the  new  denier  into  the  old  denier,  mul- 
tiply by  the  factor  0.952  (  =  £!').  The  deniers  on  the  old  system 
may  be  converted  into  the  international  measure  (based  on  a 
weight  of  0.05  gram  for  a  length  of  500  metres)  by  multiplying 
by  the  factor  1.116;  and,  inversely,  the  international  denier  may 
be  converted  into  the  old  system  denier  by  multiplying  by  the 
factor  0.896. 

The  following  tables  show  the  relations  between  the  different 
measures  of  the  French  scale: 

*  The  denier  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  weight  of  a  Roman  coin  of 
small  value  called  denarius.  The  abbreviation  for  pence  (d)  in  the  English 
monetary  system  is  derived  also  from  this  word. 


114 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Legal 
Titre. 

New 
Denier. 

Old 
Denier. 

Internat. 
Denier. 

Legal 
Titre. 

New 
Denier. 

Old 
Denier. 

Internat. 
Denier. 

Weight 
of  500 
Metres  in 
Grams. 

Weight 
of  500 
Metres  in 
Deniers. 

Weight 
of  476 
Metres  in 
Deniers. 

Weight 
of  10,000 
Metres  in 
Grams. 

Weight 
of  500 
Metres  in 
Grams. 

Weight 
of  500 
Metres  in 
Deniers. 

Weight 
of  476 
Metres  in 
Deniers. 

Weight 

Metres  in 
Grams. 

.1 

1.88 

1.78 

2 

5-° 

94.10 

89.58 

100 

.2 

3-76 

'    3.58 

4 

5-1 

95-99 

91.38 

IO2 

•3 

5.64 

5-36 

6 

5-2 

97.87 

93-17 

104 

•4 

7-52 

7.16 

8 

5-3 

99-75 

94.96 

106 

•5 

9.41 

8-95 

10 

5-4 

101.63 

96.75 

108 

.  6 

11.29 

10  -73 

12 

5-5 

03-51 

98.54 

no 

•7 

I3-J7 

12-53 

14 

5-6 

05.40 

100.33 

112 

.  8 

i5-05 

I4-32 

16 

5-7 

07.28 

102.12 

114 

•9 

16.93 

i6.n 

18 

5-8 

09.16 

103.92 

116 

.0 

18.82 

17.91 

20 

5-9 

ii  .04 

105.71 

118 

.1 

20.70 

19.70 

22 

6.0 

12.93 

107.50 

120 

.2 

22.58 

21.49 

24 

6.1 

114.81 

109.29 

122 

•  3 

24.46 

23.28 

26 

6.2 

1  1  6  .  69 

I  I  I  .  08 

124 

•  4 

26.35 

25.08 

28 

6-3 

118.57 

112.87 

126 

-5 

28.23 

27-87 

3° 

6.4 

120.45 

114.66 

128 

.6 

30.11 

28.66 

32 

6-5 

122.34 

116.46 

130 

•  7 

3r-99 

3°-45 

34 

6.6 

124.22 

II8.25 

132 

.8 

33-87 

32.24 

36 

6-7 

126.  10 

120.04 

134 

•9 

35-76 

34-°4 

38 

6.8 

127.98 

121.83 

I36 

.0 

37-64 

35-83 

40 

6.9 

129.87 

123.63 

138 

.1 

39-52 

37.62 

42 

7-° 

i3I-75 

125.42 

140 

.2 

41.40 

39-41 

44 

7-1 

133-63 

127.21 

142 

•  3 

43-29 

41.20 

46 

7-2 

I35-51 

129.00 

144 

•4 

45-17 

43-0° 

48 

7-3 

137-39 

130.80 

I46 

•5 

47  -°5 

44.78 

5° 

7-4 

139.28 

132.59 

I48 

.6 

48.93 

46.57 

52 

7-5 

141.16 

134.39 

15° 

-7 

50.81 

48.57 

54 

7-6 

143-04 

136.17 

*52 

.8 

52.70 

50.16 

56 

7-7 

144.92 

I37-96 

154 

•9 

54.58 

5I-9S 

58 

7-8 

146.80 

I39-70 

156 

3-° 

56.46 

53-74 

60 

7-9 

148.69 

141.56 

158 

3-i 

58.34 

55-54 

62 

8.0 

150-57 

143-34 

1  60 

3-2 

60.22 

57-33 

64 

8.1 

152-45 

*45-  *3 

162 

3-3 

62.11 

59  -12 

66 

8.2 

154-33 

146.92 

164 

3-4 

63-99 

60.91 

68 

8-3 

156.22 

148.71 

1  66 

3-5 

65-87 

62.70 

7o 

8.4 

158.10 

i50-5o 

1  68 

3-6 

67-75 

64.49 

72 

8-5 

159.98 

152  ^o 

170 

3-7 

69.64 

66.29 

74 

8.6 

161.86 

154.08 

172 

3-8 

7I-52 

68.08 

76 

8-7 

163.74 

155-88 

174 

3-9 

73-40 

69.87 

78 

8.8 

165.63 

157-67 

176 

4.0 

75-28 

71.66 

So 

8.9 

167.51 

159.46 

178 

4.1 

77.16 

73-45 

82 

9-° 

169.39 

161.25 

1  80 

4-2 

79-05 

75-25 

84 

9.1 

171.27 

163.04 

182 

4-3 

80.93 

77-°4 

86 

9-2 

173.16 

164.84 

184 

4-4 

82.81 

78.83 

88 

9-3 

J75-04 

166.63 

1  86 

4-5 

84.69 

80.62 

90 

9-4 

176.92 

168.42 

1  88 

4.6 

86.58 

82.42 

92 

9-5 

178.80 

170.  21 

190 

4-7 

88.46 

84.21 

94 

9.6 

180.68 

172  .-oo 

192 

4.8 

9°  -34 

86.00 

96 

9-7 

182.57 

173.80 

194 

4-9 

92  .  22 

87.79 

98 

9.8 

184.45 

175-59 

196 

SILK:    ITS   ORIGIN  AND   CULTIVATION. 


Legal 

New 

Old 

Internat. 

Legal 

New 

Old 

Internal. 

Titre. 

Denier. 

Denier. 

Denier. 

Titre. 

Denier. 

Denier. 

Denier. 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

Weight 

of  500 
Metres  in 

of  500 
Metres  in 

of  476 
Metres  in 

of  10,000 
Metres  in 

of  500 
Metres  in 

of  500 
Metres  in 

of  476 
Metres  in 

of  10,000 
Metres  in 

Grams. 

Deniers. 

Deniers. 

Grams. 

Grams. 

Deniers. 

Deniers. 

Grams. 

9-9 

186.33 

I77-38 

198 

II.  0 

207.03 

179.10 

220 

10.  0 

188.21 

179.17 

200 

II.  I 

208.92 

198.09 

222 

10.  I 

190.09 

180.97 

202 

II.  2 

210.80 

200.68 

224 

10.2 

191.98 

182.76 

204 

"•3 

212.68 

202.47 

226 

I0.3 

193,86 

184.55 

206 

ii.  4 

214.56 

204.26 

228 

10.4 

195  •  74 

186.35 

208 

"•5 

216.45 

206.06 

230 

10-5 

197.62 

188.14 

210 

ii.  6 

218.33 

207.85 

232 

10.6 

I99-51 

189.93 

212 

11.7 

220.21 

209  .  64 

234 

10.7 

201.39 

191.72 

2I4 

ii.  8 

222.09 

2H-43 

236 

10.8 

203.27 

I93-5I 

216 

ii'.g 

223.97 

213.22 

23& 

10.9 

205  •  15 

*9S-3° 

218 

12  .O 

-225.86 

215  .01 

240 

The  following  table  shows  the  comparison  between  drams, 
grams,  and  deniers: 


Drams. 

Grams. 

Deniers. 

[Drams. 

Grams. 

Deniers. 

0.0299 

0.05313 

I.o 

2.50 

4-43 

83-4 

0.25 

0.44 

8-3 

2-75 

4-87 

91.6 

o.  50 

0.88 

16.5 

3-00 

5-31 

100.  0 

0.568 

I.  00 

18.82 

4.00 

7.09 

I33-° 

o-7S 

i-33 

25.0 

5.00 

8.86 

166.0 

I.  00 

1.771875 

33-36 

6.00 

10.63 

199.0 

1-25 

2.21 
2-65 

41.6 

7.00 
8.00 

12.40 
14.17 

233-0 
265.0 

r-7S 

3.10 

58.3 

9.00 

15.95 

299.0 

2.00 

3-54 

66.6 

IO.OO 

17.72 

333-o 

2.25 

3-98 

75-o 

For  the  sizing  of  spun  silk  the  unit  of  the  English  scale  is  a 
hank  of  840  yards,  and  the  number  of  such  hanks  in  one  pound 
is  the  count  of  the  yarn.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  counting 
of  doubled  spun  silk  from  that  of  doubled  cotton  yarn,  in  that 
with  cotton  "2-40*5"  means  single  40*3  doubled  to  2o's;  whereas, 
with  spun  silk,  "2-4o's"  means  single  8o's  doubled  to  4o's,  and 
"3-4o's"  would  mean  single  i2o's  tripled  to  4o's,  etc. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CHEMICAL  NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SILK. 

i.  Chemical  Constitution. — The  glands  of  the  silkworm  appear 
to  secrete  two  transparent  liquids.  The  one,  fibroin,  constituting 
from  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  entire  secretion,  forms  the  inte- 
rior and  larger  portion  of  the  silk  fibre;  the  other,  sericin,  also 
called  silk-glue,  forms  the  outer  coating  of  the  fibre.  The  latter 
substance  is  yellowish  in  color,  and  is  readily  soluble  in  boiling 
water,  hot  soap,  and  alkaline  solutions.  As  soon  as  discharged 
into  the  air,  the  fluids  from  the  spinneret  solidify,  and  coming  into 
contact  with  each  other  at  the  moment  of  discharge  are  firmly 
cemented  together  by  the  sericin. 

The  amount  of  sericin  present  in  raw  silk  is  about  25  per 
cent.,  and  this  causes  the  fibre  to  feel  harsh  and  to  be  stiff  and 
coarse.  Before  being  manufactured  into  textiles,  the  raw  silk  is 
subjected  to  several  processes  with  a  view  to  making  it  soft  and 
glossy.  The  first  treatment  is  called  discharging,  stripping,  or 
degumming,  and  has  for  its  purpose  the  removal  of  the  silk-glue. 
It  is  really  a  scouring  operation,  the  silk  being  worked  in  a  soap 
solution  *  at  a  temperature  of  95°  C.  In  this  process  the  silk 
loses  from  20  to  30  per  cent,  in  weight,  but  becomes  soft  and 
glossy.  After  several  successive  scourings  the  soap  solution 
becomes  heavily  charged  with  sericin,  and  is  subsequently  util- 
ized in  the  dye-bath  as  an  assistant  under  the  name  of  boiled-off 
liquor. 

*  Alkaline  carbonates  are  not  to  be  recommended  for  silk  scouring,  as  they 
are  liable  to  injure"  the  fibre,  especially  at  elevated  temperatures.  Soft  water 
should  also  be  employed,  as  lime  makes  the  fibre  brittle. 

xx6 


CHEMICAL  NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SILK. 


117 


According  to  Mulder,  samples  of  yellow  Italian  silk  analyzed 
as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Silk  fibre 53-35 

Matter  soluble  in  water 28.86 

"          "         "  alcohol i .  48 

"          "        "ether o.oi 

"          "         "  acetic  acid 16.30 

He  gives  the  chemical  composition  of  the  silk  fibre  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Fibroin 53-37 

Gelatin 20 . 66 

Albumin 24 . 43 

Wax 1.39 

Coloring-matter o .  05 

Resinous  and  fatty  matter o.  10 

According  to   Richardson,   mulberry  silk  has  the  following 
composition : 

Per  Cent. 

Water 12 . 50 

Fats 0.14 

Resins 0.56 

Sericin 22 . 58 

Fibroin 63 . 10 

Mineral  matter 1.12 

Analyses  of  samples  of  mulberry  silk  are  given  by  H.  Silber- 
mann  as  follows: 


Fibroin 

Ash  of  fibroin . 

Sericin 

Wax  and  fat.  . 
Salts 


White. 


Cocoons.          Raw. 


73-59 
0.09 

22.28 
3.02 
i. 60 


76.20 
0.09 

22.01 
I.36 
0.30 


Yellow. 


Cocoons.          Raw, 


70.02 
0.16 

24.29 
3.46 
1.92 


72-35 
0.16 

23-I3 
2-75 
i. 60 


The  amount  of  ash  in  boiled-off  silk  will  vary  somewhat 
according  to  the  origin  of  the  silk,  but  will  average  about  0.50 
per  cent.  In  raw  silk  the  average  amount  of  ash  will  be  about 


"8  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

i  per  cent.*    In  yama-mai  silk  the  ash  may  reach  as  high  as  8 
per  cent. 

Fibroin  is  a  proteid  somewhat  analogous  to  that  contained  in 
wool,  and,  like  the  latter,  it  is  no  doubt  an  amido-acid.f  Mulder 
gives  the  analysis  of  fibroin  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 
Carbon  .......................................   48.80 

Hydrogen  .....................................      6.23 

Oxygen  .......................................   25  .  oo 

Nitrogen  ......................................    19  .  oo 

Vignon  analyzed  samples  of  highly  purified  silk,|  and  gives 
the  following  figures: 

Per  Cent. 
Carbon  ........................................   48.3 

Hydrogen  ......................................      6.5 

Nitrogen  .......................................    19.2 

Oxygen  ........................................    26.0 

The  proportion  of  fibroin  in  raw  silk  has  been  variously 
stated  by  different  observers,  and  appears  to  differ  with  the 
method  employed  for  its  determination.  §  The  figure  given  by 

*  Allen  states  that  the  greater  part  of  the  mineral  matters  of  raw  silk  are 
simply  adherent  to  the  fibre,  and  are  removed  together  with  the  sericin  by  pro- 
longed boiling  with  soap  solution;  the  residual  fibroin  retains  only  about  0.6  per 
cent,  of  mineral  matter.  (Comm.  Org.  Anal.,  vol.  4,  p.  507.) 

t  Richardson  suggests  the  following  structural  formula  for  fibroin,  allowing  x 
to  represent  a  hydrocarbon  residue: 

/NH—  CO, 

*\  V- 

\CO—  NH/ 

The  decomposition  of  fibroin  by  saponification  with  potash  would  then  be 
/NH—  CO\  NH2 


X\ 

\CO—  NH  \CO.OK 

$  Vignon  prepared  pure  fibroin  in  the  following  manner:  A  lo-gram  skein 
of  raw  white  silk  is  boiled  for  thirty  minutes  in  a  solution  of  15  grams  of  neutral 
soap  in  1500  c.c.  water;  rinse  in  hot,  then  in  tepid  water;  squeeze  and  repeat  the 
treatment  in  a  fresh  soap-bath;  rinse  with  water,  then  with  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid,  again  with  water;  finally,  wash  twice  with  90  per  cent,  alcohol.  The  fibroin 
thus  obtained  leaves  only  o.oi  per  cent,  of  ash  on  ignition.  (Compt.  rend.,  vol. 
"5>PP-  !?,  613.) 

§  According  to  Allen,  raw  commercial  silk  from  the  mulberry  silkworm  is 
generally  regarded  as  containing  n  per  cent,  of  moisture,  66  per  cent,  of  fibroin, 
22  per  cent,  of  sericin,  and  i  per  cent,  of  mineral  and  coloring-matters.  (Comm. 
Org.  Anal.,  vol.  4,  p.  506.) 


CHEMICAL   NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES   OF  SILK.  119 

Mulder  (see  above)  of  53.35  per  cent,  was  obtained  by  boiling 
the  raw  silk  with  acetic  acid.  By  the  action  of  a  5  per  cent, 
solution  of  cold  caustic  soda,  Stadeler  obtained  42  to  50  per  cent, 
of  fibroin.  Cramer  obtained  66  per  cent,  by  heating  raw  silk 
in  water  at  133°  C.  under  pressure.  Francezon  reports  75  per 
cent,  of  fibroin  by  twice  boiling  the  silk  in  a  solution  of  soap  and 
then  treating  with  acetic  acid.  Vignon,  by  carefully  purifying 
the  fibroin  by  suitable  treatment,  obtained  75  per  cent.* 

Unlike  keratin,  the  proteid  of  wool,  fibroin  contains  no  sul- 
phur, and  is  much  more  constant  in  its  composition.  The  empiri- 
cal formula  for  fibroin  as  given  by  Mulder  is  CisH^aNsOe-  Mills 
and  Takamine  give  the  formula  as  C24H38NgO8,  while  Schiitzen- 
berger  gives  C7iHi07N24O25.  Cramer  arrives  at  the  same  formula 
as  Mulder,  while  Richardson  (Jour.  Soc.Chem.  Ind.,  vol.  12,  426) 
gives  CeoHgiNigC^s.  Vignon's  formula  for  specially  purified 
fibroin  is  C22H47NioOi2.f 

The  presence  of  the  amido-group  in  fibroin  has  been  shown, 
as  in  the  case  of  wool  (see  page  41),  by  diazotizing  the  fibre 
with  an  acid  solution  of  sodium  nitrite,  then  washing  and  treating 
with  solutions  of  various  developers,  such  as  phenol,  resorcinol, 
alpha-  and  beta-naphthols,  etc.,  whereby  the  fibre  becomes  dyed 
in  different  colors. 

From  its  action  towards  alcoholic  potash  Richardson  con- 
cludes that  silk  fibroin  is  probably  an  amido-anhydride  rather 
than  an  amido-acid.  When  boiled  for  a  long  period  with 


*  According  to  Fischer  and  Skita  (Zeitschr.  /.  phys.  Chem.,  vol.  33,  p.  171, 
and  vol.  35,  p.  224),  even  technically  purified  silk  still  contains  about  5  per  cent, 
of  s' Ik-glue. 

|  Silbermann  found  that  fibroin  heated  with  a  solution  of  barium  hydrate 
under  pressure  was  decomposed  with  the  formation  of  oxalic,  carbonic,  and  acetic 
acids,  together  with  an  amido-body  approximating  the  formula  CegHi^NiiO^' 
The  latter  compound  is  said  to  undergo  further  decomposition  with  the  formation 
of  tyrosin,  glycocin,  alanin,  amido-butyric  acid,  and  an  amido-acid  of  the  acrylic 
series.  Fischer  and  Skita  (Zeitschr.  j.  physiol.  Chem.,  vol.  33,  p.  177)  have  shown 
that  in  all  probability  amino-valerianic  acid,  C3HT.CH(NH2).COOH,  occurs  in 
fibroin.  Silk  fibroin,  however,  appears  to  differ  from  other  albumins  in  not  con^ 
taining  aspartic  acid,  COOH.CH2.CH(NH2).CO.OH.  Glutaminic  acid, 
COOH.CH2.CH2.CH(NH2)  .COOH,  also  appears  to  be  present  in  fibroin,  though 
Fischer  doubts  this. 


120  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

dilute  sulphuric  acid,  fibroin  is  dissolved  to  a  yellowish-brown 
liquid,  leaving  as  a  residue  only  a  small  amount  of  what  is  appar- 
ently a  fatty  acid.  From  this  decomposition  product  Weyl 
(Ber.,  vol.  21,  1529)  succeeded  in  isolating  5.2  per  cent,  of  tyrosin, 
7.5  per  cent,  of  glycocin,  and  15  per  cent,  of  a  crystalline  com- 
pound which  was  apparently  alpha-alanin.  Towards  Millon's 
and  Adamkiewitz's  reagents  fibroin  gives  the  usual  reaction  of  pro- 
teids,  and  it  also  gives  the  biuret  test.*  According  to  Richardson, 
silk  fibroin  will  absorb  30  per  cent,  of  iodin  when  treated  with 
HiibPs  reagent.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  acetylize  fibroin, 
but  without  success.f 

'Fibroin  is  insoluble  in  ammonia  and  solutions  of  the  alka- 
line carbonates;  neither  is  it  dissolved  by  a  i  per  cent,  solution 
of  caustic  soda,  but  stronger  solutions  affect  it,  especially  if  hot. 
From  its  solution  in  caustic  soda  fibroin  may  be  reprecipitated 
by  dilution  with  water.  Fibroin  is  also  soluble  in  hot  glacial 

*  Millon's  reagent  consists  of  a  solution  of  mercurous  nitrate  containing  nitrous 
acid  in  solution.  It  is  prepared  by  treating  i  c.c.  of  mercury  with  10  c.c.  of  nitric 
acid  (sp.  gr.  1.4),  heating  gently  until  complete  solution  is  effected,  then  diluting 
the  solution  with  twice  its  volume  of  cold  water.  When  a  solution  of  a  proteid 
is  treated  with  this  reagent,  a  white  precipitate  is  first  formed,  which  turns  brick- 
red  on  boiling;  a  solid  proteid  becomes  red  when  boiled  with  the  reagent.  Adam- 
kiewcz's  test  is  to  dissolve  the  proteid  in  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  then  add  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  to  the  solution,  when  a  fine  violet  color  will  be  produced^ 
and  the  liquid  will  exhibit  a  faint  fluorescence.  The  biuret  test  is  to  add  a  few 
drops  of  a  dilute  solution  of  copper  sulphate  to  the  solution  of  proteid;  on  then 
adding  an  excess  of  caustic  soda  solution  the  precipitate  which  at  first  formed  will 
be  dissolved  with  the  production  of  a  fine  violet  coloration. 

t  Cohnheim,  in  his  tables  of  the  percentage  composition  of  various  albumins, 
gives  the  following  for  the  fibroin  of  silk: 

Per  Cent. 

Glycocoll 36 

Alanin 21 

Leucin. 1.5 

Phenylalanin 1.5 

a-Pyrrolidin-carboxylic  acid 0.3 

Serin 1.6 

Tyrosin 10 

Arginin ' i 

The  occurrence  of  the  following  compounds  in  indeterminate  amounts  is 
also  given:  Lysin,  histidin,  tryptophane,  and  amino-valerianic  acid. 


CHEMICAL   NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES   OF  SILK.  121 

acetic  acid,  and  in  strong  hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  nitric,  and 
phosphoric  acids.  Alkaline  solutions  of  the  hydroxides  of  such 
metals  as  nickel,  zinc,  and  copper  also  dissolve  fibroin. 

If  silk  fibroin  is  dissolved  in  cold  concentrated  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  the  solution  be  allowed  to  stand  sixteen  hours  at  the 
ordinary  temperature  with  three  times  its  volume  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  (  sp.  gr.  1.19),  it  will  no  longer  be  precipitated  by  the 
addition  of  alcohol.  The  fibroin  appears  to  have  suffered  hy- 
drolysis, being  converted  into  a  body  similar  to  peptone.  This 
substance  may  be  separated  out  by  steaming  the  above  solution 
under  diminished  pressure.*  If  its  aqueous  solution  be  neutral- 
ized with  ammonia  and  some  trypsin  ferment  be  added,  tyrosin 
will  begin  to  crystallize  out  in  a  few  hours. 

Sericin,  according  to  the  analysis  of  Richardson,  has  the 
following  composition: 

Per  Cent. 
Carbon  .......................................   48  .  80 

Hydrogen  .....................................     6.23 

Oxygen  .......................................   25  .97 

Nitrogen  ......................................   19  .  oo 


and  its  formula  is  given  as  CieH^NgOg.  It  is  considered  by 
some  as  an  alteration  product  of  fibroin;  strong  hydrochloric  acid 
is  said  to  convert  the  latter  into  sericin  ;  the  conversion  is  supposed 
to  take  place  by  assimilation  of  water  and  oxygen. 


Sericin  may  be  obtained  in  a  pure  condition  by  first  boiling  a 
sample  of  raw  silk  in  water  for  several  hours,  after  which  the 

*  Fischer  and  Abderhalden  (Berichte,  1906,  p.  752)  have  succeeded  in  isolating 
from  the  hydrochloric  acid  solution  of  silk  fibroin  a  dipeptide  in  the  form  of  methyl- 
diketopiperazine,  having  the  formula 

C2.CCX 
>NH. 
.CH/ 

The  yield  is  about  12  per  cent.,  and  the  product  is  identical  with  that  obtained 
synthetically  from  glycocoll  and  d-alanin. 


122  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

sericin  is  precipitated  by  lead  acetate.*  On  treatment  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  sericin  yields  a  small  quantity  of  leucin 
and  tyrosin,  but  no  trace  of  glycocoll,  the  principal  product 
formed  being  a  crystalline  body  called  serin,  which  appears  to 

yNH2 
have  the  formula  C2H4<^  ,  and  from  its  chemical  reactions 

\:OOH 

is  evidently  analogous  to  glycocin,  probably  being  amido-glyceric 
acid. 

Sericin  is  soluble  in  hot  water,  hot  soap  solutions,  and  dilute 
caustic  alkalies.  The  aqueous  solution  is  precipitated  by  alcohol, 
tannin,  basic  lead  acetate,  stannous  chloride,  bromin,  and 
iodin,  and  by  potassium  ferrocyanide  in  the  presence  of  acetic 
acid.f  Mulder  gives  the  formula  of  CisH^NsOg  to  sericin,  and 
the  following  composition: 

Per  Cent. 

Carbon 42.60 

Hydrogen *     5 . 90 

Oxygen 35 .00 

Nitrogen 16. 50 

According  to  Bolley,  the  composition  of  sericin  is 

Per  Cent. 

Carbon 44-32 

Hydrogen 6. 18 

Oxygen 31 . 20 

Nitrogen 18 . 30 

*  Pure  sericin  may  also  be  prepared  by  precipitating  crude  sericin  solution 
with  i  per  cent,  acetic  acid,  washing  the  separated  sericin  by  repeated  decanta- 
tion  with  water,  then  treating  with  cold  and  afterwards  with  boiling  alcohol, 
and  finally  extracting  with  ether.  Pure  sericin  contains 

Carbon 45 .  oo  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 6.32   "      " 

Nitrogen 17.14"      " 

Oxygen 31.54  "      " 

It  is  easily  soluble  in  water,  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  and  in  potas- 
sium carbonate;  sodium  carbonate  only  causes  a  swelling. 

t  By  treatment  with  formaldehyde,  it  is  claimed  that  sericin  is  rendered  in- 
soluble in  both  hot  water  and  soap  solutions;  consequently,  raw  silk  may  be 
treated  with  this  reagent  for  use  in  certain  applications  where  it  may  be  desired 
to  retain  as  far  as  possible  the  coating  of  silk-glue. 


CHEMICAL   NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SILK.  123 

According  to  the  tables  of  Cohnheim,  the  percentages  of 
known  constituents  in  silk-glue  are  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Glyc«coll o .  i-o .  2 

Alanin 5 

Leucin Not  determined 

Serin 6.6 

Tyrosin 5 

Lysin Not  determined 

Arginin 4 

Ammonia 1.87 

Vignon,*  by  observing  the  action  of  solutions  of  sericin  and 
fibroin  on  polarized  light,  found  that  both  of  these  constituents 
of  silk  were  laevogyrate,  and  their  rotatory  powers  were  about 
equal,  approximating  to  40°.  This  is  in  keeping  with  observa- 
tions made  on  other  albuminoids. 

According  to  Dubois,f  the  yellow  coloring-matter  of  silk  is 
similar  to  carotin.  He  obtained  five  different  bodies  from  the 
natural  coloring-matter  of  silk,  as  follows:  (i)  a  golden-yellow 
coloring-matter,  soluble  in  potassium  carbonate  and  precipitated 
by  acetic  acid;  (2)  crystals  which  appear  yellowish-red  by  trans- 
mitted light  and  brown  by  reflected  light;  (3)  a  lemon-colored 
amorphous  body,  the  alcoholic  solution  of  which  on  evaporation 
gave  granular  masses;  (4)  yellow  octahedral  crystals  resembling 
sulphur;  (5)  a  dark  bluish -green  pigment  in  minute  quantities 
and  probably  crystalline. 

2.  Chemical  Reactions. — In  its  general  chemical  behavior 
silk  is  quite  similar  to  wool.  It  will  stand  a  higher  temperature, 
however,  than  the  latter  fibre,  without  receiving  injury;  it  can 
be  heated,  for  instance,  to  110°  C.  without  danger  of  decomposi- 
tion; at  170°  C.,  however,  it  is  rapidly  disintegrated.  On  burning 
it  liberates  an  empyreumatic  odor  which  is  not  as  disagreeable 
as  that  obtained  from  burning  wool.  Silk  readily  absorbs  dilute 
acids  from  solutions,  and  in  so  doing  increases  in  lustre  and 
acquires  the  scroop  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made. 
Unlike  wool,  it  has  a  strong  affinity  for  tannic  acid,  which  fact 
is  utilized  for  both  weighting  and  mordanting  the  fibre.  Silk 

*  Compt.  rend.,  vol.  103,  p.  802.  |  Ibid.,  vol.  in,  p.  482. 


124  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

also  absorbs  sugar  to  a  considerable  degree,  and  this  substance 
may  be  employed  as  a  weighting  material  for  light-colored  silks 
on  this  account.  Towards  the  ordinary  metallic  salts  used  as 
mordants  silk  exhibits  quite  an  affinity;  in  fact,  to  such  an  extent 
can  it  absorb  and  fix  certain  metallic  salts  that  silk  material  is 
frequently  heavily  mordanted  with  such  salts  for  the  purpose 
of  unscrupulously  increasing  its  weight. 

Solutions  of  sodium  chloride  appear  to  have  a  peculiar  action 
on  the  silk  fibre,  especially  in  the  presence  of  weighting  materials. 
According  to  the  researches  of  Sisley,  solutions  of  common  salt 
acting  on  weighted  silk  in  the  presence  of  air  and  moisture  cause 
a  complete  destruction  of  the  fibre  in  twelve  months,  if  charged 
with  but  0.5  per  cent,  of  salt;  i  per  cent,  of  salt  causes  a  very 
pronounced  tendering  of  the  fibre  in  two  months,  while  2  to  5  per 
cent,  of  salt  causes  a  distinct  tendering  in  seven  days.  The  action 
of  the  salt  is  shared  in  a  lesser  degree  by  the  chlorides  of  potassium, 
ammonium,  magnesium,  calcium,  barium,  aluminium,  and  zinc, 
and  is  probably  due  to  chemical  dissociation.  This  fact  may 
account  for  the  stains  sometimes  found  in  skeins  of  silk  which 
also  show  a  tendering  of  the  fibre.  These  stains  have  frequently 
been  noticed,  and  thorough  investigation  has  failed  to  satisfactorily 
account  for  them.  The  salt  may  get  into  the  fibre  through  the 
perspiration  of  the  workmen  handling  the  goods,  or  through  a 
variety  of  other  causes. 

Silk  is  not  as  sensitive  to  dilute  alkalies  as  wool,  though  the 
lustre  of  the  fibre  is  somewhat  diminished.*  When  treated  with 
strong  hot  caustic  alkalies  the  silk  fibre  dissolves.  Ammonia  and 
soaps  have  no  effect  on  silk .  beyond  dissolving  the  silk-glue  or 
sericin;  though  on  long-continued  boiling  hi  soap,  the  fibroin  is 
also  attacked.  Borax  has  no  injurious  action  on  silk,  but  neither 
has  it  any  special  solvent  action  on  silk-glue,  hence  it  is  not 
serviceable  as  a  stripping  agent.  If  raw  silk  is  steeped  in  lime- 
water,  the  fibre  will  swell  to  some  extent  and  the  silk-glue  will 
become  somewhat  softened.  If  the  action  of  the  lime-water  is 
continued,  however,  the  silk  will  become  brittle.  Concentrated 

*  It  is  said  that  when  mixed  with  glucose  or  glycerin  caustic  soda  does  not 
dissolve  the  silk  fibre  to  any  extent,  but  only  removes  the  gum. 


CHEMICAL   NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES   OF  SILK.  125 

sulphuric  *  and  hydrochloric  acids  f  dissolve  silk;  nitric  acid  J 
colors  silk  yellow, §  as  in  the  case  with  wool,  probably  due  to  the 
formation  of  xanthoproteic  acid.  This  color  can  be  removed 
by  treatment  with  a  boiling  solution  of  stannous  chloride.  The 
solubility  of  silk  in  strong  hydrochloric  acid  is  very  rapid,  a 
minute  or  two  sufficing  for  complete  solution.  Under  such  con- 
ditions wool  and  cotton  fibres  are  but  slightly  affected,  so  such  a 
treatment  may  be  used  for  the  separation  of  silk  from  wool  or 
cotton  for  the  purpose  of  analysis.  A  concentrated  solution 
of  basic  zinc  chloride  readily  dissolves  the  silk  fibre.  ||  An 

*  Though  silk  is  soluble  in  concentrated  acids  if  their  action  is  continued 
for  any  length  of  time,  it  appears  that  if  silk  be  treated  with  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  for  only  a  few  minutes,  then  rinsed  and  neutralized,  the  fibre  will 
contract  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  in  length  without  otherwise  suffering  serious 
injury  beyond  a  considerable  loss  in  lustre.  This  action  of  concentrated  acids  on 
silk  has  been  utilized  for  the  craping  of  silk  fabrics,  the  acid  being  allowed  to  act 
only  on  certain  parts  of  the  material.  It  appears  that  tussah  silk  is  not  affected 
by  the  acid  to  the  same  degree  as  ordinary  silk,  and  hence  craping  may  be 
accomplished  by  mixing  tussah  with  ordinary  silk,  and  treating  the  entire  fabric 
with  concentrated  acid. 

f  According  to  Farrell  (Jour.  Soc.  Dyers'  fy  Col.,  1905,  p.  70),  when  silk 
is  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  of  a  density  of  29°  Tw.  it  shrinks  about  one- 
third  without  any  appreciable  deterioration  in  the  strength  of  the  fibre.  With 
solutions  of  acid  below  29°  Tw.  no  contraction  occurs,  while  with  solutions  above 
30°  Tw.  complete  disintegration  of  the  fibre  results.  In  the  production  of  crepon 
effects  by  this  method,  the  fabric  is  printed  with  a  wax  resist,  and  is  then  immersed 
in  the  hydrochloric  acid;  the  contraction  is  complete  in  one  to  two  minutes,  after 
which  the  fabric  is  well  washed  in  water.  Nitric  acid  and  ortho-phosphoric  acid 
may  also  be  employed  for  the  craping  of  silk  fabrics  (see  C.  and  P.  Depoully, 
Jour.  Soc.  Dyers'  &"  Col.,  1896,  p.  8).  According  to  a  French  patent,  a  similar 
effect  may  be  obtained  by  treating  silk  with  a  solution  of  zinc  chloride  of  from 
32°  to  76°  Tw.  (see  Jour.  Soc.  Dyers'  6r»  Col.,  1899,  p.  214). 

J  Vignon  and  Sisley  (Compt.  rend.,  1891)  found  that  the  purified  fibroin  of 
silk  when  treated  with  nitrous  nitric  acid  increased  2  per  cent,  in  weight. 

§  The  action  of  nitric  acid  on  silk  is  rather  a  peculiar  one.  When  treated 
for  one  minute  with  nitric  acid  of  sp.  gr.  1.33  at  a  temperature  of  45  3  C.,  the  silk 
acquires  a  yellow  color  which  cannot  be  washed  out  and  is  also  fast  to  light.  Pure 
nitric  acid  free  from  nitrous  compounds,  however,  does  not  give  this  color.  On 
treating  the  yellow  nitro-silk  with  an  alkali,  the  color  is  considerably  deepened. 
With  strong  sulphuric  acid  nitro-silk  swells  up  and  gives  a  gelatinous  mass 
resembling  egg  albumin. 

||  On  diluting  this  solution  with  water  a  flocculent  precipitate  is  obtained 
which  is  soluble  in  ammonia,  and  the  latter  solution  has  been  employed  for  coat- 
ing vegetable  fibres  with  silk  for  the  production  of  certain  so-called  "artificial 
silks." 


126  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

acid  solution  of  zinc  chloride  acts  in  the  same  manner. 
Solutions  of  copper  oxide  or  nickel  oxide  in  ammonia  also 
act  as  solvents  towards  silk.  The  latter  solution  can  'be  em- 
ployed for  separating  silk  from  cotton,  the  silk  being  readily 
and  completely  soluble  in  a  boiling  solution  of  ammoniacal 
nickel  oxide,  whereas  cotton  loses  less  than  i  per  cent,  of  its  weight. 
A  boiling  solution  of  basic  zinc  chloride  (1:1)  will  dissolve  silk 
in  one  minute,  while  cotton  under  the  same  treatment  loses  only 
0.5  per  cent.,  and  wool  only  i  .5  to  2  per  cent.*  Chlorin  destroys 
silk,  as  do  other  oxidizing  agents,  unless  employed  hi  very  dilute 
solutions  and  with  great  care.  Strong  solutions  of  stannic 
chloride  (70°  Tw.)  will  dissolve  silk,  an  action  which  should  be 
borne  in  mind  when  mordanting  and  weighting  silk  with  this  salt. 

Hydrofluosilicic  acid  and  hydrofluoric  acid  in  the  cold  and  in 
5  per  cent,  solutions  do  not  appear  to  exert  any  injurious  action 
on  the  silk  fibre;  these  acids,  however,  remove  all  inorganic 
weighting  materials,  and  their  use  has  been  suggested  for  the 
restoring  of  excessively  weighted  silks  to  their  normal  condition, 
so  that  they  may  be  less  harsh  and  brittle. 

Towards  coloring-matters  in  general,  silk  exhibits  a  greater 
capacity  of  absorption  than  perhaps  any  other  fibre.  It  also 
absorbs  dyestuffs  at  much  lower  temperatures  than  does  wool. 

As  silk  is  evidently  an  amido-acid,  it  possesses  distinct  chemical 
characteristics;  that  is  to  say,  it  exhibits  both  acid  and  basic 
properties  in  a  manner  similar  to  wool.  Like  the  latter  fibre 
(see  page  50),  it  is  probable  that  the  active  chemical  groups  in 
silk  have  considerable  influence  on  its  dyeing  properties,  es- 
pecially with  reference  to  acid  and  basic  dyes,  for  it  has  been 
shown  f  that  if  these  active  molecular  groups  are  rendered  inactive 
by  acetylation  or  otherwise,  the  dyeing  properties  of  the  silk  are 
accordingly  altered. 

*  Silk  is  also  soluble  in  Schweitzer's  reagent  (ammoniacal  copper  oxide),  and 
in  an  alkaline  solution  of  copper  sulphate  and  glycerin.  The  latter  is  used  to 
separate  silk  from  wool  and  cotton;  and  the  following  solution  is  recommended: 
1 6  grams  copper  sulphate,  10  grams  glycerin,  and  150  c.c.  of  water.  After  dis- 
solving, add  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  until  the  precipitate  which  at  first  forms 
is  just  redissolved. 

f  Suida,  Fdrber-Zeit.,  1905. 


CHE 'MICA 'L  NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  SILK.  127 

3.  Tussah  Silk  presents  a  number  of  differences,  both  physi- 
cal and  chemical,  from  ordinary  silk.  It  has  a  brown  color 
and  is  considerably  stiffer  and  coarser.  It  is  less  reactive,  in 
general,  towards  chemical  reagents,  and  consequently  presents 
more  difficulty  in  bleaching  and  dyeing.  Tussah  silk  requires 
a  much  more  severe  treatment  for  degumming  than  cultivated 
silk,  and  the  boiled-off  liquor  so  obtained  is  of  no  value  in  dyeing. 

According  to  analyses  of  Bastow  and  Appleyard,*  raw  tus- 
sah  silk  gives  the  following  results: 

Per  Cent. 
Soluble  in  hot  water 2 1 . 33 

Dissolved  by  alcohol  (fatty  acid) 0.91 

Dissolved  by  ether o .  08 

Total  loss  on  boiling  off  with  i  per  cent,  solution 

of  soap 26.49 

Mineral  matter 5 . 34 

These  same  observers  consider  that  the  fibroin  of  tussah  silk 
differs  chemically  from  that  of  ordinary  silk,  as  it  is  not  so 
readily  acted  on  by  solvents.  In  order  to  obtain  pure  tussah 
fibroin,  the  silk  should  be  boiled  repeatedly  with  a  i  per  cent, 
solution  of  soap,  washed  with  water,  extracted  with  hydrochloric 
acid;  and  after  again  washing  with  water  and  drying,  extracted 
successively  with  alcohol  and  ether.  Tussah  fibroin  purified  in 
this  manner  shows  the  following  composition: 

Per  Cent. 
Carbon 47. 18 

Hydrogen 6. 30 

Nitrogen 16.85 

Oxygen 29 . 67 

These  figures  are  exclusive  of  0.226  per  cent,  of  ash.  Apple 
yard  gives  the  following  analysis  of  the  ash  from  raw  tussah  silk . 

Per  Cent. 

Soda,  Na2O 12.45 

Potash,  K20 31 .68 

Alumina,  A12O3 i .  46 

Lime,  CaO 13 . 32 

Magnesia,  MgO 2.56 

Phosphoric  acid,  P2OS 6.90 

Carbonic  acid,  CO2 11.14 

Silica,  SiO; 9.79 

Hydrochloric  acid,  Cl 2 .89 

Sulphuric  acid,  SO3 8. 16 

*  Jour.  Soc.  Dyers'  &>  Col.,  vol.  4,  p.  88. 


t28 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


The  presence  of  sulphates  in  this  ash  is  somewhat  remark- 
able, as  this  constituent  does  not  occur  in  ordinary  silk.  The 
occurrence  of  alumina  is  also  remarkable,  as  this  element  is  sel- 
dom a  constituent  of  animal  tissues.  As  the  amount  of  ash  of 
purified  fibroin  of  both  common  silk  and  tussah  silk  is  very 
much  lower  than  that  of  the  raw  silks,  it  is  to  be  considered  prob- 
able that  most  of  the  mineral  matter  found  is  derived  from  adher- 
ing impurities,  and  is  not  a  true  constituent  of  the  silk  itself. 

Tussah  silk  is  scarcely  affected  by  an  alkaline  solution  of 
copper  hydrate  in  glycerin,  whereas  ordinary  silk  is  readily 
soluble  in  this  reagent.* 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  principal  differences  between 
true  silk  and  tussah  silk:  f 


Reagent. 

Mulberry  Silk. 

Tussah  Silk. 

Hot  caustic  soda  (10%) 

Cold    hydrochloric    acid    (sp. 
gr.  1.16) 
Cold  cone,  nitric  acid 
Neutral  solution  of  zinc  chlo- 
ride (sp.  gr.  1.725) 
Strong   chromic   acid   solution 
in  water 

Dissolves  in  12  minutes 
Dissolves  very  rapidly 

Dissolves  in  5  minutes 
Dissolves  very  rapidly 

Dissolves  very  rapidly 

Requires  50  minutes  for 
solution 
Only    partially    dissolves 
in  48  hours 
Dissolves  in  10  minutes 
Dissolves  but  slowly 

Dissolves  very  slowly 

While  the  fibre  of  mulberry  silk  presents  the  appearance  of  a 
structureless  thread,  and  rarely  exhibits  signs  of  distinct  striation, 
tussah  (and  other  "  wild  "  silks)  is  made  up  of  bundles  of  delicate 
fibrillae,  varying  in  diameter  from  0.0003  to  0.0015  mm.,  so  that 
the  fibre  as  a  whole  presents  a  striated  appearance.  Also  the 
cross-section  J  of  tussah  silk  is  considerably  larger  than  that 
of  mulberry  silk,  and  is  more  flattened;  it  also  exhibits  numerous 
fine  air-tubes.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  difference  in 
the  microscopic  appearance  of  various  kinds  of  raw  silk;  the 
diameter  is  expressed  in  //  =  thousandths  of  a  millimetre:  § 

*  Filsinger,  Cfiem.  Zeit.,  vol.  20,  p.  324. 

f  Bastow  and  Appleyard,  Jour.  Soc.  Dyers'  &•  Col.,  vol.  4,  p.  89. 

J  Filsinger,  vide  supra. 

§  Hohnel,  Jour.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  vol.  2,  p.  172. 


CHEMICAL   NATURE  AND   PROPERTIES  OF  SILK. 


129 


Variety  of  Silk. 

Diameter, 
P' 

Appearance. 

Broad  Side. 

Narrow  Side. 

True  silk,  Bombyx 

20  tO  25 

White       or       yellowish  ; 

White       or       yellowish; 

mori 

shiny 

shiny 

Senegal     silk,      B. 

3°  to  35 

Shining      yellowish      or 

Gray,   brown,   or  black, 

faidherbi 

brownish   white,         or 

with         occasionally 

pale       yellow,       gray, 
brown,    and   occasion- 

lighter shades 

ally  bluish  white 

Ailanthussilk,^4«a- 

40  to  50 

Shining  yellowish  white, 

Dirty  gray  or  brown  to 

cus  cynthia 

with  yellow,  brown,  or 

black,  with  green,  yel- 

brownish-gray spots 

low,  red,  violet,  or  blue 

spots 

Yama-mai   silk, 

40  to  50 

Bluish  white  with   dark 

Glaring  and  fine  colors, 

Anther  tea    yama- 

blue,   blue   and   black 

with    dark    or    black 

mai 

shades 

shades 

Tussah   silk,   Atta- 

5°  to  55 

[rregular     in     thickness. 

Dark  gray,  with  pink  or 

cus  selene 

Thickest     parts     with 

light  green  spots 

gray   and   blue   spots; 

thinner     parts     bluish 

white,        yellow,        or 

orange-red 

Tussah    silk,    An- 

60  to  65 

Similar    to    above,    but 

Similar  to  above 

theraa  mylitta 

spots  orange-red,   red, 

or  brown 

The  cocoon-threads  of  wild  silks  possess  greater  elasticity 
and  tensile  strength,  as  would  naturally  be  expected  from  their 
greater  thickness.  The  following  table  gives  the  elasticity  and 
breaking  strain  of  the  principal  varieties  of  silk : 


Variety  of  Silk. 

Elasticity, 
Per  Cent. 

Breaking 
Strain  .Grams. 

17    ^ 

4   ^ 

128 

4  ° 

6  7 

-  5 

12    8 

Attacus  Selene  

2O   O 

5.6 

IQ    I 

8  i 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  VEGETABLE  FIBRES. 

I.  General  Considerations. — The  basis  of  all  vegetable  fibres 
is  to  be  found  in  cellulose,*  a  compound  belonging  to  a  class 
of  naturally  occurring  substances  known  as  carbohydrates.  The 
fibres  may  be  seed-hairs,  such  as  the  different  varieties  of  cotton, 
cotton-silk,  etc.;f  or  bast  fibres,  which  include  those  obtained 
from  the  cambium  layer  of  the  dicotyledonous  plants,  such  as 
flax,  hemp,  jute,  ramie,  etc.;  or  vascular  fibres, J  which  include 
those  obtained  chiefly  from  the  leaf -tissues  of  the  monocotyledo- 
nous  plants,  such  as  phormium,  agave,  aloe,  etc.§ 

Anatomically  considered,  the  'plant  fibres  may  be  divided  into 
six  different  classes  (Hohnel): 

(1)  Single-cell  plant-hairs,  such  as  cotton,  vegetable  silk,  and 
vegetable  down. 

(2)  Fibres  consisting  of  several    cells,   such    as    pulu  fibre, 
elephant-grass,  and  cotton-grass. 

(3)  Bast  fibres,  such  as  flax,  hemp,  jute,  ramie,  etc. 

(4)  Dicotyledonous   bast  fibres,    such  as  linden  bast,  Cuba 
bast,  etc. 

*  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  cellulose  actually  occurs  in  the  plant  in  the  free 
condition,  but  is  usually  associated  or  chemically  combined  with  other  substances, 
of  which  the  principal  are  fatty  and  waxy  matters,  coloring-matters,  and  tannins, 
and  a  rather  indefinite  group  of  so-called  pectin  matters,  which  appear  to  be 
more  or  less  oxidized  or  acid  derivatives  of  the  carbohydrates. 

f  In  a  certain  sense,  the  cocoanut  fibre  (coir)  may  be  included  under  the 
class  of  seed-hairs. 

%  In  China  there  is  an  example  of  a  spinning  fibre  composed  of  the  leaf-hairs 
of  a  plant.  The  latter  apparently  belongs  to  the  Xeranthemum,  and  its  leaves 
are  covered  with  a  thick  mass  of  long  hairy  fibres,  which  are  easily  separated 
from  the  leaf  when  dried  (see  Wiesner,  Die  Rohstoffe  des  Pflanzenreiches,  p.  167). 

§  There  is  a  peculiar  instance  in  which  the  entire  plant  is  used  as  the  fibre; 
this  is  sea-grass  or  sea-wrack  (Zoster a,  marina).  However,  it  can  scarcely  be 
considered  as  a  textile  fibre,  as  it  is  almost  altogether  employed  for  stuffing  and 
packing. 

130 


THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  131 

(5)  Monocotyledonous  vascular  fibres,   such  as  sisal  hemp, 
aloe  hemp,  pineapple  fibre,  cocoanut  fibre,  etc. 

(6)  Monocotyledonous  sclerenchymous  fibres,  such  as  Manila 
hemp,  New  Zealand  flax,  etc.* 

There  is  considerable  difference  to  be  observed  between  the 
anatomical  structure  of  seed-hairs  and  that  of  bast  fibres.  Seed- 
hairs  are  known  botanically  as  plumose  fibres,  and  usually  consist 
of  a  unicellular  fibre  or  trichrome,  exhibiting  only  a  single  solid 
apex,  the  other  end  being  attached  to  the  seed.  Externally  they 
appear  to  be  covered  with  a  thin  skin  or  cuticle  which  differs 
essentially  from  the  remaining  cellulose  in  that  it  is  not  dissolved 
by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid.  The  cell-walls  vary  con- 
siderably in  their  thickness,  and  are  structureless  and  porous. 
Through  the  centre  of  the  fibre  runs  a  hollow  canal  called  the 
lumen.  Usually  the  dried  fibre  is  flattened  into  the  form  of  a 
band,  so  that  in  cross-section  the  lumen  appears  as  a  line.  Bast 
fibres,  on  the  other  hand,  consist  of  completely  enclosed  tubes, 
each  end  being  pointed.  Each  individual  fibre  is  multicellular, 
the  cells  being  long  and  usually  polygonal  in  cross-section.f  The 
cell-walls  are  usually  rather  thick,  and  the  cross-section  instead 
of  being  flat  and  narrow  is  broad  and  more  or  less  rounded. 
The  inner  wall  is  frequently  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  dried 
protoplasm.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  appearances  of 
the  bast  fibres  is  the  occurrence  of  dislocations  or  joints  through- 

*  Zipser  (Textile  Raw  Materials,  p.  8  et  seq.)  gives  the  following  classification 
for  vegetable  fibres: 

1.  Seed  fibres,  growing  from  the  seeds  or  seed-capsules  of  certain  plants,  and 
including  cotton,  Bcmbzx,  Asckpias,  etc. 

2 .  Stem  fibres,  growing  in  the  bast  of  certain  dicotyledonous  plants,  and  includ- 
ing flax,  hemp,  jute,  etc. 

3.  Leaf  fibres,  occurring  in  the  leaves  of  a  number  of  monocotyledonous  plants, 
and  including  New  Zealand  hemp,  Manila  hemp,  aloe,  etc. 

4.  Fruit  fibres,  of  which  the  sole  member  worth  mentioning   is  the  cocoa- 
nut  fibre. 

f  The  bast  or  vascular  bundles  consist  of  two  parts,  the  phloem  and  the  xylem. 
As  a  rule,  the  phloem  occurs  nearer  the  outside  of  the  plant,  while  the  xylem  forms 
the  principal  structural  part  of  the  inside  portion  of  the  plant.  The  fibres  in 
the  phloem  are  usually  rather  easily  detached  and  form  the  commercial  product, 
while  those  occurring  in  the  xylem,  as  a  rule,  cannot  be  readily  separated  by 
mechanical  means  from  the  woody  tissue  in  which  they  are  imbedded. 


I32 


THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


out  the  length  of  the  fibre  (see  Fig.  42).  These  dislocations 
also  show  the  property  of  becoming  more  deeply  colored  than 
the  rest  of  the  fibre  when  treated  with  a  solution  of  chlor-iodide 
of  zinc.  These  knots  or  joints  generally  show  thicker  overlying 
transverse  fissures,  between  which  lie  small  short  discs  arranged 
on  edge.  The  joints  disappear  altogether  in  the 
monocotyledonous  fibres;  they  are  also  lacking 
on  many  true  bast  fibres,  such  as  jute,  linden 
bast,  etc.,  but  occur  in  hemp,  flax,  ramie,  etc. 


FIG.  42.  FIG.  43. 

FIG.  42. — A  Typical  Bast  Fibre  (X35o)  showing  the  Jointed  Structure  or  Dis- 
locations at  D.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 
FIG.  43. — A  Bundle  of  Bast  Fibres.     (X4OO.)     (After  Lecomte.) 

Bast  fibres  are  the  long,  tough  cells  found  in  the  barks  and 
stems  of  various  plants.  The  cell- walls  of  these  fibres  are  usually 
partially  changed  from  pure  cellulose  into  lignin  and  are  thickened. 
There  is  usually  a  considerable  amount  of  foreign  matter  also 
contained  in  the  cell- wall,  and  often  this  becomes  sufficiently 
characteristic  to  serve  as  a  means  of  identifying  the  various 
fibres  by  the  application  of  chemical  reagents.  Fibres  which 
contain  only  pure  cellulose  are  colored  blue  when  treated  with 


THE   VEGETABLE   FIBRES. 


133 


the  iod  in-sulphuric  acid  reagent  (see  chapter  xvii),  while  fibres 
containing  lignin  are  colored  yellow  to  brown  with  the  same 
test.  Unlike  seed-hairs,  the  individual  cells  of  bast  fibres  are 
not  of  sufficient  length  for  use  in  spinning,  but  as  they  are  held 
together  with  considerable  firmness  to  form  bundles  of  great 
length,  they  are  utilized  in  this  form. 

Wiesner  gives  the  following  table  showing  the  length  of  the 
raw  fibre  and  the  dimensions  of  the  cells  composing  them. 


Fibre. 

Length  of 
Raw  Fibre 
cm. 

Length  of 
Cells, 
mm. 

Breadth  of  Cells. 

Min.  „. 

Max.  p. 

Aver.  p. 

Tillandsia  fibre 

2-22 

10-40 

50-90 

80-110 

60-70 

5o-x5o 
150—300 
100—180 

100-120 
8o-IOO 
20-30 
40-50 
20-140 
100-300 
150-300 
40-90 
20—50 
IOO-IIO 

.2-0.5 

•S-i-9 
.  i-i  .  6 
-5-5-6 
.1-1.6 
•5-4-0 
.8-4.1 

•9-4-7 
.1-3.2 
.8-2.3 
•7-3.0 
•3-3-7 
.0-4.0 
.8-4.1 
.8-4.1 
.0—12.0 
.5-6.9 
.4-6.7 

22.0 
8.0 
40-5 

35-i 
18.2 

28.4 

25.0 
20-30 
20-30 
10-30 
10-25 
10-56 

30-45 

I  .  1-2  .  6 

i-S-3-5 
o  .  9—2  .  i 

1-2 
0.4-5.1 

4 

I  .  0-4  .  2 

I  .  0-2  .  2 
0.4^0.9 

6 

9 
14.7 
8 
8 
8 
10 

12 

9 

15 

18 

I5 

12 

16 
16 

20 
20 
27 
40 
16 
19.2 

17 
II.9 
2O.  I 
20 

J9 

12 
20 
19 

49 
33 

17 
9 
i? 
8 

16 

12 

15 

16.8 
29 
20 

20 
21 
21 

24 
25 
25 
24 
25 
32 
32 
4i 
42 
42 
80 

12.6 

27.9 
27.1 

22 
29.9 

37-8 

29 
42 
44 
33 
92 
5° 

25 
14 
24 
29 

21 
20 

15 
13 
16 

16 
16 
X5 

16 

20 
20 

5° 

25.2 
25-9 
I8.S 
29.4 
29.9 

38 

15 
20 
12 

21 
20 
17 

16 

Cordia  latijclia  

Phormium  tenax  

Abelmochus  tetraphyllos  
Bauhinia  racemosa  
Jute  (Cor  chorus  capsularis)  

Urena  sinuata  

Calotropis  gigantea  (bast)  

Flax  (Linum  usitatissimuni)  

Hemp  (Camiabis  sativo)  

Jute  (Cor  chorus  olitorius)  

Hibiscus  cannabinus  
Sunn  (Crotolaria  juncea)  

Ramie  (Bdhmeria  tenacissima)  
Cotton  (Gossypium  barbadense)  

4-05 

3-51 
1.82 

2.84 
2.50 

2-3 

2~3 

do.      (G.  acuminatum)  
do.      (G.  arboreum)  
Cotton  wool  (Bombax  heptaphyllum)  . 
Vegetable  silk  (Calotropis  gigantea).  . 
do.               (Asclepias)  
do.                (Marsdenia)       .    ... 

do                 (Strophanthus) 

Pita  fibre 

Coir  fibre 

134  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Vetillard  gives  a  somewhat  similar  table  as  follows: 


Name. 

Length  (in  mm.). 

Breadth  (in  p"). 

Ratio  of 
Breadth 
to  Length. 

Min. 

Max. 

Mean. 

Min. 

Max. 

Mean. 

Linen                              .        

A 

66 

2C 

I  Z 

27 

20 

1  200 

Hemp  (Cannabis  sativa)  

5 

55 

J 
20 

16 

O  I 

5° 

22 

1000 

Hop  fibre  (Humulus  lupulus)  

4 

J9 

IO 

12 

26 

16 

620 

Nettle  fibre  (Urtica  dioica)  

4 

57 

27 

2O 

7° 

5° 

55° 

Ramie  (Urtica  nivea)  

60 

!5° 

120 

80 

S° 

2400 

Fibre  of  paper  mulberry  

25 

IO 

3° 

35° 

Sunn  hemp  (Crotalaria  juncea).  .  .  . 

4 

12 

8 

25 

5° 

3° 

260 

Broom  -grass  (Sarothamnus  vulgario] 
Feather-grass  (Spartium  junceum).  . 

2 

5 

9 
16 

5 

10 

10 

25 

15 

20 

33° 
500 

Meliotus  alba  

5 

18 

10 

20 

'  36  ' 

30 

33° 

Cotton  

:o 

40 

Gambo  hemp  (Hibiscus  cannabinus\ 

2 

6 

5 

14 

33 

21 

240 

Linden-bast  (Tilia  europcea).  .  .     ... 

I  .  2 

5 

2 

14 

20 

16 

I25 

Jute  (Corchorus  capsularis)  

!-5 

5 

2 

2O 

25 

22.5 

90 

Lapetta  lintearia 

3 

6 
3 

5 

2 

10 
17 

20 

3° 

22 

500 
9° 

Salix  alba  

Esparto  

°-5 

3-5 

J-5 

7 

18 

12 

I25 

Lygaeum  spartum  

J-3 

4-5 

2-5 

12 

20 

J5- 

1  60 

Pineapple  fibre  

3 

9 

5 

4 

8 

6 

830 

Bromelia  pinguin  

0.8 

2.5 

2 

8 

16 

13 

I5° 

New  Zealand  flax  (Phormium  tenax). 

5 

15 

9 

IO 

20 

16 

55° 

Yucca  fibre  

°-5 

6 

4 

10 

20 

15 

170 

Sanseveria  fibre  

I-S 

'6 

3 

15 

26 

20 

*$° 

Pita  (Agave  americana)  

i  .  5 

4 

2  .  5 

20 

32 

24 

IOO 

Manila  hemp  (Musa  textilis)  
Musa  paradisaica  

3 

12 

6 

c 

16 
20 

32 
4° 

24 

28 

250 
1  80 

Phoenix  dactylijera  

2 

6 

J 

3 

16 

24 

2O 

150 

Corypha  umbraculijera  

1-5 

5 

3 

16 

28 

24 

120 

Elais  guineensis  

I-S 

3-5 

2.5 

IO 

J3 

I  I 

230 

Raphia  taetigera 

T     C 

2  .  C 

12 

2O 

16 

1  00 

Mauritia  flexuosa.  '.  

*  •  J 

I 

3 

1.5 

10 

16 

12 

J3° 

•Coir  fibre  (Cocas  nucijerd)  

0.4 

i 

0.7 

12 

24 

20 

35 

2.  Classification. — Perhaps  the  most  systematic  and  complete 
enumeration  of  the  various  vegetable  fibres,  together  with  a 
classification  of  their  technical  uses,  is  that  given  by  Dodge,* 
from  which  the  following  abstract  is  taken. 

STRUCTURAL   CLASSIFICATION. 
A.    FlBROVASCULAR   STRUCTURE. 

.  i.  Bast  fibres. — Derived  from  the  inner  fibrous  bark  of  dicot- 
yledonous  plants   or   exogens,    or   outside   growers.     They   are 


*  Rzpcrt  on  Useful  Plant  Fibres  oj  the  World. 


THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  135 

composed  of  bast-cells,  the  ends  of  which  overlap  each  other,  so  as 
to  form  in  mass  a  filament.  They  occupy  the  phloem  portion 
of  the  fibro vascular  bundles,  and  their  utility  in  nature  is  to  give 
strength  and  flexibility  to  the  tissue. 

2.  Woody  fibres. 

(a)  The  stems  and  twigs  of  exogenous  plants,  simply  stripped 
of  their  bark  and  used  entire,  or  separated  into  withes  for  weaving 
or  plaiting  into  basketry.  4 

(6)  The  entire  or  subdivided  roots  of  exogenous  plants, 
to  be  employed  for  the  same  purpose,  or  as  tie  material,  or  as 
very  coarse  thread  for  stitching  or  binding. 

(c)  The  wood  of  exogenous  trees  easily  divisible  into  layers 
or  splints  for  the  same  purposes,  or  more  finely  divided  into 
thread-like  shavings  for  packing  material. 

(d)  The   wood   of   certain   soft   species   of   exogenous   trees, 
after  grinding  and  converting  by  chemical  means  into   wood- 
pulp,  which  is  simple  cellulose,  and  similar  woods  more  carefully 
prepared  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  silk. 

3.  Structural  fibres. 

(a)  Derived  from  the  structural  system  of  the  stalks,  leaf- 
stems,  and  leaves,  or  other  parts  of  monocotyledonous  plants, 
or  inside  growers,  occurring  as  isolated  fibro  vascular  bundles, 
and  surrounded  by  a  pithy,  spongy,  corky,  or  often  a  soft,  succu- 
lent, cellular  mass  covered  with  a  thick  epidermis.  They  give 
to  the  plant  rigidity  and  toughness,  thus  enabling  it  to  resist 
injury  from  the  elements,  and  they  also  serve  as  water-vessels. 

(6)  The  whole  stems,  or  roots,  or  leaves,  or  split  and  shredded 
leaves  of  monocotyledonous  plants. 

(c)  The  fibrous  portion  of  the  leaves  or  fruits  of  certain 
exogenous  plants  when  deprived  of  their  epidermis  and  soft 
cellular  tissue. 

B.  SIMPLE  CELLULAR  STRUCTURE. 

4.  Surface  fibres. 

(a)  The  down  or  hairs  surrounding  the  seeds,  or  seed  en- 
velopes, or  exogenous  plants,  which  are  usually  contained  in 
a  husk,  pod,  or  capsule. 


136  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

(b]  Hair-like  growths,  or  tomentum,  found  on  the  surfaces 
of  stems  and  leaves,  or  on  the  leaf-buds  of  both  divisions  of  plants. 

(c)  The  fibrous  material  produced  in  the  form  of  epidermal 
strips  from  the  leaves  of  certain  endogenous  species,  as  the  palms. 

5.  Pseudo- fibres,  or  false  fibrous  material. 

(a)  Certain  of  the  mosses,  as  the  species  of  the  Sphagnum, 
for  packing  material. 

(6)  Certain  leaves  and  marine  weeds,  the  dried  substance 
of  which  forms  a  more  delicate  packing  material. 

(c)  Seaweeds  wrought  into  lines  and  cordage. 

(</)  Fungus  growths,  or  the  mycelium  of  certain  fungi  that 
may  be  applied  to  economic  uses,  for  which  some  of  the  true 
fibres  are  employed. 

The  bast  fibres  *  are  clearly  defined,  and  all  such  fibres  when 
simply  stripped  are  similar  in  form  as  to  outward  appearance, 
differing  chiefly  in  color,  fineness,  and  strength.  An  example 
of  a  fine  bast  fibre  is  the  ribbons  or  filaments  of  hemp.  The 
woody  fibres  f  are  only  fibrous  in  the  broad  sense,  as  their  cellulose 
is  broken  down  and  all  extraneous  matter  removed  by  chemical 
means,  as  for  the  manufacture  of  paper-pulp  or  of  artificial  silk. 
The  structural  fibres  J  are  found  in  many  forms  differing  widely 


*  The  bast  fibres  are  derived  from  the  bark  of  exogeneous  plants,  such  as 
trees,  shrubs,  the  climbing  vines,  and  herbaceous  vegetation  generally. 

t  The  greater  number  of  woody  fibres  are  merely  wood  in  the  form  of  flexi- 
ble slender  twigs  or  osiers  that  are  useful  for  making  baskets;  or  the  larger  branches 
may  be  split  or  subdivided  into  strips,  withes,  or  flat  ribbons  of  wood,  for  making 
coarser  baskets.  The  softer  woods  still  further  divided  give  the  product  known 
as  "excelsio~,"  which  can  only  claim  a  place  in  the  list  of  fibres  on  account  of  its 
use  in  upholstery  or  packing. 

J  The  structural  fibres  are  to  be  found  in  many  forms,  among  which  may  be 
enumerated  the  following:  The  stiff,  white,  or  yellowish  fibres  forming  the  struc- 
ture of  all  fleshy-leaved  or  aloe-like  plants,  as  the  century  plant,  the  yuccas, 
agave,  and  pineapple,  or  the  fleshy  trunk  of  the  bfnana;  the  coarser  bundles  of 
stiff,  fibro  s  substance  which  gives  strength  to  tke  trunks,  leaf,  stem,  and  even 
the  leaves  of  palms,  such  as  piassave,  derived  from  the  dilated  margins  of  the 
petioles  of  a  palm ;  stiff  fibres  extracted  by  maceration  from  the  bases  of  the  leaf- 
stems  of  the  cabbage  palmetto,  or  the  shredded  leaves  of  the  African  fan  palm, 
known  as  Crin  Tegltal;  rattan  strips  and  fibrous  material  derived  from  bamboo, 
the  corn-stalk,  broom -corn,  and  from  reeds,  sedges,  and  grasses;  still  other  forms 
are  the  coir  fibre  surrounding  the  fruit  of  the  cocoanut,  the  fibre  from  pine-needles, 


THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  137 

from  each  other,  and  the  surface  fibres  *  are  still  more  varied  in 
form. 

ECONOMIC  CLASSIFICATION.! 

A.  SPINNING  FIBRES. 

1.  Fabric  fibres. 

(a)  Fibres  of  the  first  rank  for  spinning  and  weaving  into 
fine  and  coarse  textures  for  wearing  apparel,  domestic  use,  or 
house-furnishing  and  decoration,  and  for  awnings,  sails,  etc. 
(The  commercial  forms  are  cotton,  flax,  ramie,  hemp,  pineapple, 
and  New  Zealand  flax.) 

(&)  Fibres  of  the  second  rank,  used  for  burlap  or  gunny, 
cotton  bagging,  woven  mattings,  floor-coverings,  and  other  coarse 
uses.  (Commercial  examples  are  coir  and  jute.) 

2.  Netting  fibres. 

(a)  Lace  fibres,  which  are  cotton,  flax,  ramie,  agave,  etc. 

(6)  Coarse  netting  fibres,  for  all  forms  of  nets,  and  for 
hammocks.  (Commercial  forms:  Cotton,  flax,  ramie,  New 
Zealand  flax,  agave,  etc.) 

3.  Cordage  fibres. 

(a*)  Fine-spun  threads  and  yarns  other  than  for  weaving; 
cords,  lines,  and  twines.  (All  of  the  commercial  fabric  fibres, 


and  the  fibrous  mass  filling  the  sponge  cucumber,  which  is  a  peculiar  example  of 
a  structural  fibre  derived  from  an  exogenous  plant. 

*  Surface  fibres  may  consist  of  the  elongated  hairs  surrounding  the  pods  of  the 
thistle,  and  known  as  thistle-down,  or  they  may  be  fibrous  growths  around  seed 
clusters,  as  the  cotton-boll,  the  milk-weed  pod,  etc.,  or  they  may  be  the  leaf  scales 
or  tomentum  found  on  the  under  surface  of  leaves  or  epidermal  strips  of  palm 
leaves,  such  as  raffia. 

t  Dewey  (Y ear-Book,  Dept.  Agric.  1903)  gives  the  following  economic  classi- 
fication of  the  vegetable  fibres: 

(1)  The  cottons,  with  soft,  lint -like  fibre  $  inch  to  2  inches  long,  composed 
of  single  cells,  borne  on  the  seeds  of  different  species  of  cotton-plants. 

(2)  The  soft  fibres,  or  bast  fibres,  including  flax,  hemp,  and  jute;    flexible 
fibres  of  soft  texture,  10  to  100  inches  in  length,  composed  of  many  overlapping 
cells  and  contained  in  the  inner  bark  of  the  plants. 

(3)  The  hard,  or  leaf,  fibres,  including  Manila,  sisal,  Mauritius,  New  Zealand 
fibres,  and  istle,  all  having  rather  stiff,  woody  fibres  i  to  10  feet  long,  composed 
of  numerous  cells  in  bundles,  borne  in  the  tissues  of  the  leaf  or  leaf-stem. 


138  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

sunn,  Mauritius,  and  bowstring  hemps,  New  Zealand  flax,  coir, 
Manila,  sisal  hemps;   the  fish-lines  made  from  seaweeds.) 

(b)  Ropes  and  cables.  (Chiefly  common  hemp,  sisal,  and 
Manila  hemps,  when  produced  commercially.) 

B.  TIE  MATERIAL  (rough  twisted). 

Very  coarse  material,  such  as  stripped  palm-leaves,  the  peeled 
bark  of  trees,  and  other  coarse  growths  used  without  preparation. 

C.  NATURAL  TEXTURES. 

1.  Tree-basts,  with  tough  interlacing  fibres. 

(a)  Substitutes  for  cloth,  prepared  by  simple  stripping 
and  pounding. 

(6)  Lace-barks,*  used  for  cravats,  frills,  ruffles,  etc.,  and  for 
whips  and  thongs. 

2.  The  ribbon  or  layer  basts,  extracted  in  thin,  smooth-sur- 
faced, flexible  strips  or  sheets.     (Cuba  bast  f  used  as  millinery 
material,  cigarette  wrappers,  etc.) 

3.  Interlacing  structural  fibre  or  sheaths. 

(a)  Pertaining  to  leaves  and  leaf-stems  of  palms,  such  as 
the  fibrous  sheaths  found  at  the  bases  of  the  leaf-stalks  of  the 
cocoanut. 

(6)  Pertaining  to  flower-buds.  The  natural  caps  or  hats 
derived  from  several  species  of  palms. 

D.    BRUSH  FIBRES. 

i .  Brushes  manufactured  from  prepared  fibre. 

(a)  For  soft  brushes.  (Substitutes  for  animal  bristles, 
such  as  Tampico.) 


*  The  lace-bark  tree  is  the  Lagetta  lintearia,  and  grows  principally  in  Jamaica. 
The  fibre  (or  rather  fabric)  is  obtained  from  the  inner  bark,  occurring  in  con- 
centric layers  which  are  easily  detachable,  and  which  are  suited  to  the  most  deli- 
cate textiles;  when  stretched  out  they  form  a  pentagonal  or  hexagonal  mesh  very 
closely  resembling  lace. 

t  The  Cuba  bast  here  referred  to  is  the  lace-like  inner  bark  from  the  Hibis- 
cus elatus,  which  was  formerly  largely  used  for  tying  up  bundles  of  Havana  cigars. 
The  plant  also  yields  a  bast  fibre  which  is  coarse  but  very  strong,  and  is  suitable 
for  the  making  of  cordage  and  coffee  bags. 


THE  VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  139 

(b)  For  hard  brushes.     (Examples:    Palmetto  fibre,  pal- 
myra, kittul,*  etc.) 

2.  Brooms  and  whisks. 

(a)    Grass-like   fibres.      (Examples:    Broom-root,   broom- 
corn,  etc.) 

(6)  Bass  fibres.     (Monkey  bass,  etc.) 

3.  Very  coarse  brushes  and  brooms. 

Material  used  in  street-cleaning.     Usually  twigs  and  splints. 

E,  PLAITING  AND  ROUGH-WEAVING  FIBRES. 

1 .  Used  in  hats,  sandals,  etc. 

(a)  Straw    plaits.       From    wheat,    rye,    barley,   and    rice 
straw.     (Tuscan  and  Japanese  braids.) 

(b)  Plaits  from  split  leaves,  chiefly  palms  and  allied  forms 
of  vegetation.     (Panama  hats.) 

(c)  Plaits  from  various  materials.     (Bast  and  thin  woods 
used  in  millinery  trimmings.) 

2.  Mats  and  mattings;  also  thatch  materials. 

(a)  Commercial  mattings  from  Eastern  countries. 

(b)  Sleeping-mats,  screens,  etc. 

(c~)  Thatch-roofs,     made     from     tree-basts,     palm-leaves, 
grasses,  etc. 

3.  Basketry. 

(a)  Manufactures  from  woody  fibre. 

(b)  From  whole  or  split  leaves  or  stems. 

4.  Miscellaneous  manufactures. 

Willow- ware  in  various  forms;    chair-bottoms,  etc.,  from 
splints  or  rushes. 

F.  VARIOUS  FORMS  OF  FILLING. 
T  .  Stuffing  or  Upholstery. 

(a)  Wadding,    batting,    etc.,    usually    commercially    pre- 
pared lint-cotton. 

*  Kittul,  or  kittool,  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  jaggery  palm,  Caryota  urens. 
The  structural  fibre  is  brownish  black  in  color  and  lustrous,  the  filaments  being 
straight  and  smooth.  It  somewhat  resembles  horse-hair  and  curls  like  coir  when 
drawn  between  the  thumb  and  nail  of  the  forefinger.  In  Ceylon  the  fibre  is  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  ropes  of  great  strength  which  are  used  for  tying  elephants. 
It  is  largely  used  for  making  brushes  of  various  kinds,  especially  machine  brushes 
for  polishing  linen  and  cotton  yarns,  and  for  brushing  velvets. 


14°  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

(b)  Feather  substitutes  for  filling  cushions,  etc.;    cotton f 
seed-hairs,  tomentum  from  surfaces  of  leaves,  other  soft  fibrous 
material. 

(c)  Mattress   and   furniture  filling;    the  tow  or  waste  of 
prepared  fibre;    unprepared  bast,  straw,  and  grasses;    Spanish 
moss,  etc. 

2.  Caulking. 

(a)  Filling  the  seams  hi  vessels,  etc.;   oakum  from  various 
fibres. 

(b)  Filling  the  seams  in  casks,  etc.;    leaves  of  reeds  and 
giant  grasses. 

3.  Stiffening. 

In  the  manufacture  of  "  staff  "  for  building  purposes,  and 
as  substitutes  for  cow-hair  in  plaster;  New  Zealand  flax;  pal- 
metto fibre. 

4.  Packing. 

(a)  In  bulkheads,  etc.  Coir,  cellulose  of  corn-pith.  In 
machinery,  as  in  valves  of  steam-engines;  various  soft  fibres. 

(6)  For  protection  in  transportation;  various  fibres  and 
soft  grasses;  marine  weeds;  excelsior. 

G.     PAPER  MATERIAL. 

1.  Textile  papers. 

(a)  The  spuming  fibres  in  the  raw  state;    the  secondary 
qualities  or  waste  from  spinning-mills,  which  may  be  used  for 
paper-stock,  including  tow,  jute-butts,  Manila  rope,  etc. 

(b)  Cotton  or  flax  fibre  that  has  already  been  spun  and 
woven,  but  which,  as  rags,  finds  use  as  a  paper  material. 

2.  Bast  papers. 

This  includes  Japanese  papers  from  soft  basts,  such  as 
the  paper  mulberry. 

3.  Palm  papers. 

From  the  fibrous  material  of  palms  and  similar  plants. 
Palmetto  and  yucca  papers. 

4.  Bamboo  and  grass  papers. 

This  includes  all  paper  material  from  gramineous  plants, 
including  the  bamboos,  esparto,  etc. 


THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  141 

5.  Wood-pulp,  or  cellulose. 

The  wood  of  spruce,  poplar,  and  similar  "  paper-pulp  " 
woods  prepared  by  various  chemical  and  mechanical  processes. 

Wiesner  gives  the  following  botanical  classification  of  the 
more  important  vegetable  fibres: 

A.  VEGETABLE  HAIRS. 

1.  Cotton  (seed-hairs  of  Gossypium  sp.). 

2.  Bombax  cotton  (fruit-hairs  of  Bombacece). 

3.  Vegetable  silks   (seed-hairs  of  various  Asdepiadacea 
and  Apocynacea). 

B.  BAST  FIBRES  FROM.  THE  STALKS  AND  STEMS  OF  DICOTYLE- 

DONOUS PLANTS. 

(a)  Flax-like  fibres. 

4.  Flax  (Linum  usitatissimum). 

5.  Hemp  (Cannabis  saliva). 

6.  Gambo  hemp  (Hibiscus  cannabinus). 

7.  Sunn  hemp  (Crotalaria  juncea). 

8.  Queensland  hemp  (Sida  retusa). 

9.  Yercum  fibre  (Calotropis  gigantea). 

(b)  Bcehmeria  fibres. 

10.  Ramie  or  China  grass  (Boshmeria  nivea). 

(c)  Jute-like  fibres. 

11.  Jute  (Cor chorus  capsularis  and  C.  olitorius). 

12.  Raibhenda  (Abelmochus  tetraphyttos}. 

13.  Pseudo-jute  (Urena  sinuata). 

(d)  Coarse  bast  fibres. 

14.  Bast  fibres  from  Bauhinia  racemosa. 

15.  Bast  fibres  from  Thespesia  Lampas. 

1 6.  Bast  fibres  from  Cordia  latijolia. 

(e)  Basts. 

17.  Linden  bast  (Tilia  sp.). 

1 8.  Bast  from  Sterculia  villosa. 

19.  Bast  from  Holoptelea  integrifolia. 

20.  Bast  from  Kydia  calycina. 

21.  Bast  from  Lasiosyphon  speciosus. 

22.  Bast  from  Sponia  wightii. 


I42  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

C.    VASCULAR  BUNDLES  FROM  MONOCOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS. 
(a)  Leaf  fibres. 

23.  Manila  hemp  (Musa  textilis  and  others  of  this  kind). 

24.  Pita  (Agave  americana  and  A.  mexicana). 

25.  Sisal   (Agave  rigida}. 

26.  Mauritius  hemp  (Agave  jcetida}. 

27.  New  Zealand  flax  (Phormium  tenax). 

28.  Aloe  fibres  (Aloe  sp.). 

29.  Bromelia  fibres  (Bromelia  sp.). 

30.  Pandanus  fibres  (Pandanus  sp.). 

31.  Sansevieria  fibres  (Sansevieria  sp.). 

32.  Sparto  fibres  (Siipa  tenacissima}. 

33.  Piassave  (Attalea  funijera,  Raphia  vinijera,  etc.). 
(6)  Stem  fibres. 

34.  Tillandsia    fibres,    southern    moss    (Tillandsia .  usne- 

oides}. 
(c}  Fruit  fibres. 

35.  Coir  or  cocoanut  fibre  (Cocos  nucifera). 

36.  Peat  fibres. 
(d)  Paper  fibres. 

37.  Straw  fibres  (rye,  wheat,  oat,  rice). 

38.  Esparto  fibres  (leaf  fibres  of  Stipa  tenacissima}. 

39.  Bamboo  fibres  (Bambusa  sp.). 

40.  Wood  fibre  (pine,  fir,  aspen,  etc.). 

41.  Bast  fibre  from  paper  mulberry  (Broussonetia  papy- 

ri fern}. 

42.  Bast  fibre  from  Edgeworthia  papyri jera. 

43.  Peat  fibres. 

Lecomte  (Textiles  vegetaux}  gives  the  following  classification 
with  reference  to  the  botany  of  the  textile  fibres: 

A.    VEGETABLE  HAIRS. 

Cotton. 
Asclepias. 

, .  Minor  vegetable  hair  fibres, 

Epilobium. 

Typha,  etc. 


THE   VEGETABLE  PIBRES.  143 


B.    BAST  FIBRES. 

I.  Dicotyledons. 

a.  UrticacecE  family. 

Hemp  (Cannabis). 

Ramie  (Boshmeria). 

Nettle  (Urtica). 

Paper  mulberry  (Broussonetia). 

Hop  (Humiilus). 

b.  LinacecB  family. 

Linen  (Linum). 

c.  ThymelcacecB  family. 

Lace  bark  (Lagelta). 
Nepal  paper  (Daphne). 

d.  Tiliacea  family. 

Jute  (Corchorus). 
Linden  (Tilid). 

e.  Malvacea  family. 

Queensland  hemp  (Sida). 

Caesar  weed  (Urcna). 

Pseudo-hemps  (Hibiscus). 
/.   PapilionacecB  family. 

Sunn  hemp  (Crotalaria). 

Clover  (Melilotus). 

Ginestra  (Genista). 

Spanish  sparto  (Spartium). 
g.  Cordiacea  family. 

Cordia  fibres. 
h.  Asdepiadacea  family. 

Giant  asclepias  (Calotropis). 

II.  Monocotyledons. 

a.  GraminecK  family. 

Sparto  grass  (Slipa). 
Weeping  sylvan  (Lygeum) 

b.  Liliacea  family. 

New  Zealand  hemp  (Phormium). 

Yucca  (Yucca  sp.). 

Bowstring  hemps  (Sansevieria). 


144  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

c.  AmaryllidacefB  family. 

Sisal  hemps  (Agave). 

d.  Bromeliacea  family. 

Pineapple  (Ananas). 
Bromelia  fibres  (Bromeli-a). 

e.  Musacea  family. 

Manila  hemp  (Musa). 
/.  Naiadacea  family. 

Sea  wrack  (Zoster a), 
g.  Palma  family. 

Coir  (Cocos). 

Rama  (Raphia). 

Murumuru  palm  (Astrocaryum). 

Crin  vegetal  (Chamarops). 

Rattan  cane  (Calamus'). 

Sago-palm  (Arengd). 

Date-palm  (Phoenix). 

Talipot  palm  (Corypha). 

Oil-palm  (Elais). 

3.  Physical  Structure  and  Properties. — Seed-hairs,  or  plumose 
fibres,  are  divided  into  three  morphological  classes: 

(1)  Those  consisting  of  single  cells,   one   end  of  which   is 
closed  and  tapers  to  a  point,  the  other  end  being  broken  off 
abruptly  where  it  is  torn  from  the  seed  to  which  it  was  fastened 
during  growth.     This  class  includes  the  most  important  plumose 
fibres,  such  as  cotton  and  the  vegetable  silks. 

(2)  Those  consisting  of  a  series  of  cells  joined  together  to 
form  a  continuous  fibre;    this  class  includes  the  tomentum  or 
epidermal  hair  obtained  from  certain  ferns,  and  are  practically 
valueless  as  textile  materials,  though  used  for  upholstery  and  such 
purposes. 

(3)  Those  consisting  of  several  series  of  cells,   represented 
by  the  fibres  of  the  so-called  cotton-grass  and  elephant- grass. 

The  hair  fibres  may  originate  on  almost  any  organ  of  the 
plant  exposed  to  the  air.  The  following  table  indicates  the 
origin  of  the  majority  of  such  fibres :  * 

*  See  Lecomte,  Textiles  -veg&laux. 


THE  VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  MS 

Hair  Fibres. 
(i)  Covering  the  seeds,  either  entirely  or  in  part: 

Cotton Malvacece. 

Marsdenia 


Calotropis 
Asclepias 


AsclepidecB. 


Vincetoxicum    j 

Beaumontia      }    . 

\  A  pocynea. 
Strophantus      j    ?    7 

Epilobium (Enotheracece. 

(2)  Contained  in  the  flower  (rudimentary  floral  envelope): 
Typha Typhacea. 

Eriophorum. ..  .Cyperacea. 

(3)  Lining  the  interior  of  the  fruit: 
Ochroma 1 

Bombax i  Bombacea. 

Eriodendron . .  J 

(4)  Covering  stalks  and  leaves: 
Cibotium Ferns. 

The  cell- wall  of  the  plumose  fibres  in  some  cases  is  relatively 
thin,  while  in  others  it  is  comparatively  thick.  It  is  generally 
without  apparent  structure,  though  sometimes  it  is  seen  to  con- 
tain pores,  and  occasionally  a  mesh-like  interlacing  of  filaments 
is  observable,  especially  at  the  base  of  the  fibre.  The  inner 
surface  of  the  cell- wall  is  usually  coated  with  a  cuticle  of  dried 
protoplasm,  which  is  evidently  similar  in  constitution  to  the 
outer  cuticle,  as  it  also  remains  undissolved  when  the  fibre 
is  dissolved  in  either  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  or  an  ammo- 
niacal  solution  of  copper  oxide.  Lecomte  *  gives  the  following 
classification  of  vegetable  fibres  with  respect  to  their  cellular 
structure : 

*  i.  Fibres  consisting  of  a  single  isolated  cell: 

Hairs.  Fibres. 

Cotton.  Cottonized  ramie  and  china-grass. 

Ascelpias  silk 
Bombax  cotton. 

*  Textiles  vegetaux. 


146  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

2.  Single  fibres  associated  in  bundles: 
Unbleached  jute. 

Linen  (poorly  prepared  linen  frequently  contains  paren- 

chym  cells  and  epidermal  cells). 
Ambari  hemp  (Hibiscus). 
Ramie. 
Hemp  (well  prepared). 

3.  Fibres  with  medullary  cells: 

Queensland  hemp  (Sida  retusa). 
Cor  did  la  ti  folia. 
Thespesia  lampas. 

4.  Fibres  with  parenchym  cells: 
Abelmoschus  tetraphyllos. 
Urena  sinuata. 

Sunn  hemp  (Crotalaria  juncea). 
Calotropis  gigantea. 
Hemp  (as  often  prepared). 

The  general  term  of  bast  fibre  includes  really  two  distinct 
forms;  if  the  fibre  occurs  in  the  bast  itself  it  should  be  designated 
as  true  bast  fibre,  such  as  linen,  hemp,  and  jute.  When,  however, 
the  fibres  do  not  occur  in  the  bast,  but  in  single  bundles  in  the  leaf 
structure  of  the  plant,  they  should  be  designated  as  sclerenchymous 
fibres.  In  true  bast  fibres  there  are  seldom  to  be  noticed  distinct 
pores,  whereas  the  sclerenchymous  fibres  are  abundantly  supplied 
with  them.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  true  bast  fibres 
frequently  show7  peculiar  dislocations  or  joints  caused  by  an 
unequal  cell  pressure  in  the  growing  plant;  these  are  entirely 
absent  in  the  sclerenchymous  fibres.  The  ends  of  all  bast  fibres 
are  usually  quite  characteristic  and  exhibit  a  wide  diversity  of 
forms;  at  times  they  are  sharp-pointed  and  again  blunt;  some 
possess  but  a  single  point,  while  others  are  split  or  forked;  some- 
times the  cell- wall  is  thicker  than  in  the  rest  of  the  fibre,  and 
sometimes  it  is  thinner.  When  the  cells  occur  in  bundles  they 
are  frequently  separated  from  one  another  by  a  so-called  median 
layer,  which  forms  a  sort  of  matrix  in  which  the  separate  filaments 
are  imbedded.  This  layer  usually  differs  in  its  chemical  com- 
position from  the  cell- wall  proper,  and  gives  different  color 


THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  147 

reactions  vvith  various  reagents,  as  it  generally  consists  of  lignified 
tissue.  In  many  cases  the  cell-walls  appear  to  have  a  distinct 
structure,  being  composed  of  concentric  layers  which  in  cross- 
section  exhibit  a  stratified  appearance. 

The  bast  fibres  may  be  roughly  divided  into  four  classes  with 
reference  to  the  comparative  sizes  of  the  cell-wall  and  the  inner 
canal  or  lumen : 

(1)  The  canal  takes  up  about  four-fifths  of  the  diameter  of 
the  fibre: 

Ramie  and  china-grass. 

(2)  The  canal  is  about  two-thirds  of  the  diameter  of  the  fibre : 
Pineapple  fibre, 

Hemp, 

Pita  and  sunn  hemp. 

(3)  The  canal  is  mostly  less  than  one-half  the  diameter  of 
the  fibre: 

Ambari  hemp  (Hibiscus], 

Yucca, 

New  Zealand  hemp  (Phormium  tenax\ 

Manila  hemp. 

(4)  The  canal  is  often  reduced  to  a  mere  line: 
Linen. 

The  inner  canal  is  very  regular  (and  consequently  the  cell- wall 
will  be  of  uniform  thickness)  in  fibres  of  yucca,  New  Zealand 
hemp,  sunn  hemp, .  pita,  hemp,  linen,  ramie,  and  the  plumose 
fibres.  On  the  other  hand,  the  canal  is  irregular  (with  resulting 
irregularities  in  the  thickness  of  the  cell-wall)  in  fibres  of  jute, 
coir,  Urena  sinuata,  Abelmoschus,  etc. 

All  plant-cell  membranes  are  doubly  refractive  towards  light, 
and  this  is  especially  true  of  thick- walled  cells  which  are  parallel 
to  the  fibre  proper.  If  such  a  fibre  is  examined  in  the  dark  field 
of  a  micro-polariscope  it  shows  a  beautiful  arrangement  of  bright 
prismatic  colors. 

The  degree  of  double  refraction  varies  with  different  fibres; 
in  some,  as  for  example  in  coir,  it  is  very  weak,  while  in  others, 
such  as  linen  and  hemp,  it  is  very  strong.  The  following  table 
gives  the  polarization  colors  shown  by  various  fibres: 


148  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Fibre.  Polarization  Colors. 

Vascular  and   parenchy-  ^ 

mous    cells    of    wood  V  Dark  gray, 
and  straw ) 

Epidermal  cells  of  straw  )  ^ 

f  Dark  erray. 
and  esparto ) 

Coir Dark  gray. 

Dark  gray  .to  light  gray;  also 


Cotton ,         ,  . 

white  to  yellow. 

New  Zealand  flax Ditto. 

Fibre  cells  of  jute  and  (  Dark  gray  to  light  gray;  yel- 

esparto \     lowish  to  red. 

Bast    cells    of   flax   and  (  White,  yellowish,  orange,  red, 


hemp. 


violet,  changing  to  yellowish 


(      white  and  violet. 


In  color  the  vegetable  fibres  vary  considerably  in  the  raw  state; 
some,  like  cotton,  ramie,  and  the  vegetable  silks,  are  almost 
pure  \\hite.  Others,  like  linen,  possess  -a  grayish-brown  color; 
while  others  yet,  like  jute  and  hemp,  have  a  decided  brown  color. 
These  colors,  however,  are  due  to  incrusting  impurities,  as  the 
cellulose  fibres,  purified  and  freed  from  all  such  foreign  matters, 
are  always  white. 

In  lustre  the  vegetable  fibres  are  usually  below  those  of  animal 
origin,  and  especially  silk,  though  they  differ  much  in  this  respect. 
Cotton  probably  has  the  least  lustre  of  any,  as  its  surface  as  by 
no  means  smooth  and  even,  but  presents  a  wrinkled  and  creased 
appearance,  hence  scatters  the  rays  of  light  reflected  therefrom. 
The  ether  plumose  fibres,  as  the  various  vegetable  silks,  have  a 
very  smccth  surface,  and  consequently  exhibit  considerable  lustre. 
Linen,  jute,  ramie,  and  the  bast  fibres  in  general,  when  separated 
into  their  fine  filaments  and  properly  freed  from  all  incrusting 
matter,  possess  a  rather  high  degree  of  lustre;  for  though  they 
have  more  or  less  roughened  places  and  irregularities  on  their 
surface,  the  major  portion  of  such  surface  is  smooth  and  regular. 

The  more  closely  the  fibre  approximates  to  pure  cellulose 
the  greater  becomes  its  flexibility  and  elasticity,  and  the  more  it  is 


THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  149 

lignified  *  the  less  these  qualities  become.  That  is  to  say,  the 
highly  lignified  fibres  are  stiff  and  brittle  and  but  little  adapted 
to  the  spinning  of  fine  yams. 

In  tensile  strength  the  vegetable  fibres  vary  considerably; 
owing  to  the  great  difference  in  the  physical  form  and  thickness 
of  the  various  fibres,  it  is  difficult  to  give  a  comparison  of  their 
respective  strengths.  The  following  table  gives  a  comparison 
between  the  more  important  fibres: 

Breaking  Tensile  Strength. 

Fibre.                                               Length  in  Kilograms  per 

Kilometres.  Sq.  Millimetre. 

Cotton 23.0  34.27 

Linen 24.0  36.00 

Jute 34.5  49.51 

Hemp 52.0  78.00 

Coir 17.8 

Manila  hemp 31.8 

China  grass 20.0 

Raw  silk 30.8  40.04 

The  hygroscopic  moisture  contained  in  vegetable  fibres  is 
considerably  lower  than  that  present  in  either  wool  or  silk.  While 
the  latter  fibres  under  normal  atmospheric  conditions  will  aver- 
age as  much  as  12  to  16  per  cent,  of  moisture,  cotton  and  linen 
will  have  only  from  6  to  8  per  cent.  The  table  on  page  150 
(after  Wiesner)  gives  the  amount  of  moisture  in  various  vege- 
table fibres  in  the  ordinary  air-dry  condition,  and  also  the 
greatest  amount  they  will  absorb  hygroscopically. 

4.  Chemical  Composition  and  Properties. — Although  cellulose 
forms  the  chief  constituent  of  all  vegetable  fibres,  it  varies  much 
in  its  purity  and  associated  products  in  its  occurrence  in  the 
various  fibres.  Seed-hairs,  like  cotton,  consist  almost  entirely  of 
cellulose  in  a  rather  pure  state,  but  the  bast  and  vascular  fibres 
always  contain  more  or  less  alteration  products  of  cellulose, 
chief  among  which  is  ligno-cellulose,  or  lignin;  in  fact  jute  is 
almost  entirely  composed  of  this  latter  substance.  Seed -hairs 
mostly  consist  of  one  single  cell  to  the  individual  fibre  and  have 
very  little  foreign  or  incrusting  material  present.  The  other 

*  The  term  lignified  means  that  the  fibre  is  more  or  less  changed  into  woody 
tissue. 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 
HYGROSCOPIC  MOISTURE  IN  VEGETABLE  FIBRES. 


Fibre. 

Air-dry 
Condition. 

Maximum 
Amount 

HywraTeCr°PiC 

Cotton 

6.66 

5-7° 
6.00 

6.52 
12.50 
5-31 
7-38 
5.80 

6-9S 
7.02 
9.26 
7-49 
6-95 
6.82 
10.83 
8-93 
7.84 
9.00 
12.30 
5-67 

20.99 
13.90 

23.3° 
18.15 
50.00 
10.87 
14.61 
13.00 
I3-32 
15.20 
16.98 
17.11 
18.03 
18.19 
18.19 

l8.22 
19.  12 
2O.  50 
3O.OO 
I3-I3 

Flax"  (Belgian) 

China  grass  

Aloe  perioliata 

Tillandsia  fibre             

pita                                         .        

fibres  are  made  up  of  an  aggregation  of  cells  bound  together 
in  a  compact  form,  and  in  the  cell  interstices  there  is  always 
present  more  or  less  gummy  and  resinous  matter,  oils,  mineral 
matter,  and  lignified  tissue.  All  vegetable  fibres  appear  to  contain 
more  or  less  pigment  matter,  usually  of  a  slight  yellowish  or 
brownish  color.  In  ordinary  cotton  and  ramie  this  coloring- 
matter  occurs  in  only  a  very  small  amount  and  the  natural  fibre 
is  quite  white  in  appearance.  There  are  some  varieties  of  cotton, 
however,  Mhich  are  distinctly  brown  in  color.  Flax,  jute,  hewp, 


*  Piassave  fibre  is  obtained  from  a  palm-tree,  Attalea  funifera.  It  is  a  struc- 
tural fibre  obtained  from  the  dilated  base  of  the  leaf-stalks.  It  is  stiff,  wiry, 
and  bright  chocolate  in  color,  and  is  principally  used  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes. 
It  is  also  used  on  the  street-sweeping  machines  in  London.  The  palm  grows 
principally  in  Brazil,  where  the  natives  use  the  fibre  for  making  coarse  cables 
which  are  very  durable  and  so  light  that  they  will  float  on  the  water. 

f  The  Bauhinia  is  a  genus  of  arborescent  or  climbing  plants  found  in  tropical 
countries.  The  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  bast  of  the  inner  bark,  and  may  be 
made  into  coarse  cordage,  but  it  soon  rots  in  water.  The  fibre  is  reddish  in  color 
and  tough  and  strong,  and  has  been  employed  in  India  for  the  construction  of 
bridges. 


THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  151 

etc.,  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  pigment  and  are  of  a 
more  or  less  pronounced  brownish  color. 

Besides  cellulose  and  lignin,  there  is  also  present,  especially  in 
seed-hairs,  a  cutose  membrane  (cork  tissue)  in  the  form  of  an 
external  cuticle.  Cutose  is  insoluble  in  concentrated  isulphuric 
acid,  but  is  slightly  soluble  in  boiling  caustic  potash.  It  doubt- 
less originates  from  the  plant- wax  which  is  imbedded  in  the  cell. 
Albuminous  matter  also  occurs  in  the  fibre  elements,  mostly  as  a 
dried  tissue  which  fills  the  lumen  of  the  fibre  more  or  less  com- 
pletely. It  also  occurs  as  a  thin  film  which  coats  the  inner  wall 
of  the  cell  and  remains  undissolved  when  the  fibre  is  treated  with 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  This  membrane  exhibits  all  the 
reactions  of  albumin.  Silicic  acid  sometimes  is  present  in  vege- 
table fibres,  but  only  in  the  walls  of  the  stegmata  and  in  epidermal 
cells.  On  ignition  the  silicious  matter  is  left  in  almost  the 
original  form  of  the  fibre.  The  silicious  skeleton  is  insoluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  whereas  the  rest  of  the  ash  is  readily  dissolved 
by  this  reagent.  Crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  occasionally  occur 
in  some  fibres;  they  are  insoluble  in  acetic  but  dissolve  in  hydro- 
chloric acid.  On  ignition  of  the  fibres  these  crystals  are  con- 
verted into  calcium  carbonate  without  much  change  of  form,  and 
then  are  soluble  hi  even  very  dilute  acids. 

Woody  fibre  is  to  be  found  in  many  vegetable  fibres,  and  its 
presence  always  lowers  the  economic  value  of  the  fibre.  The 
presence  of  woody  fibre  may  readily  be  determined  by  the  appli- 
cation of  a  number  of  characteristic  chemical  tests.  Anilin 
sulphate,  for  instance,  with  woody  fibre  gives  a  golden  yellow 
color;  phloroglucol  with  hydrochloric  acid  gives  a  red  color,  phenol 
with  hydrochloric  acid  a  green  color,  as  does  also  indol  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  a  solution  of  chlor-iodide  of  zinc  gives  a  brownish 
yellow  color.  Woody  fibre  is  also  destroyed  by  the  action  of 
alkalies  and  hypochlorites  in  the  bleaching  process;  and  in  fact 
this  process  usually  has  for  its  chief  object  the  decomposition  and 
removal  of  the  woody  fibre  which  may  be  present.  Due  to  this 
fact,  certain  bleached  fibres,  such  as  jute  or  hemp,  may  no  longer 
exhibit  the  above-mentioned  color  reactions,  although-  they  may 
have  done  so  originally  in  the  raw  condition. 


152  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

There  are  several  reagents  which  are  serviceable  in  micro- 
chemical  tests  on  vegetable  fibres,  as  they  yield  distinctive  color 
reactions.  With  the  iodin-sulphuric  acid  reagent  *  the  principal 
fibres  give  the  following  reactions. 

(a)  Blue  colors: 
Cotton, 

Raw  fibre  from  Hibiscus  cannabinus, 

11       "       "      Cdotropis  gigantea  (greenish  blue  to  blue), 

"     flax  fibre, 
Cottonized  ramie, 
Raw  sunn  hemp  (often  copper-red), 

"     hemp  (greenish  blue  to  pure  blue). 

(b)  Yellow  to  brown  colors: 
Bombax  cotton, 

Vegetable  silk  (occasionally  greenish  or  greenish  blue), 
Raw  jute, 

"     fibre  of  Abelmoschus  tetraphyllos, 
(l       "     "  Urena  sinuata, 
"       "     "  Bauhinia  racemosa  (blackish  brown), 

'•'     "  Thespesia  lampas, 
"     esparto  (reddish  brown)* 
' '     aloe  (mostly  reddish  brown,  sometimes  greenish  and 

even  blue), 

New  Zealand  flax  (yellow,  green  to  blue,  depending  on  the 
purification  of  the  fibre). 

The  fibres  in  the  second  class  have  their  cellulose  largely 
contaminated  with  lignin,  and  hence  have  somewhat  of  the 
character  of  woody  tissue.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  however,  that 
by  treatment  with  nitric  acid  (or  by  boiling  with  caustic  potash 
under  pressure)  these  fibres  lose  most  of  the  lignin  which  encrusts 
their  tissues,  and  then  exhibit  the  characteristics  of  ordinary 
cellulose;  that  is  to  say,  they  dissolve  in  Schweitzer's  reagent, 
and  are  colored  blue  with  the  iodin-sulphuric  acid  reagent. 

Ammoniacal  copper  oxide  f  (Schweitzer's  reagent)  is  another 

*  For  the  preparation  of  this  reagent  see  page  338. 
f  For  the  preparation  of  this  reagent  see  page  337. 


7 HE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES  153 

reagent  which  gives  characteristic  reactions  with  many  vegetable 
fibres,  as  follows: 

(a)  The  fibres  are  almost  completely  dissolved:* 
Cotton, 

Cottonized  ramie, 

Raw  fibre  of  Hibiscus  cannabinus, 

"       "     "  Calotropis  gigantea, 

11     flax, 

' '     hemp  (only  the  bast  cells  dissolve,  the  accompanying 
parenchymous  cells  remain  undissolved), 

' '     sunn  hemp. 

(b)  The  fibre  becomes  blue  in  color  and  is  more  or  less  swollen: 
Raw  jute, 

"      fibre  of  Abelmoschus  tetraphyllos, 
11        "     "  Urena  sinuata, 
11         "     "  Bauhinia  racemosa, 
' '         "     ' '  Thespesia  lampas, 
"      New  Zealand  flax, 

' '      fibre  of  Aloe  perfoliata  (slightly  swollen), 
"         "     "  Bromelia  karatas  (strongly  swollen), 
"         "     "  Sida  retusa  (becomes  greenish  at  first,  then 
blue  and  swells  up). 

(c)  The  fibre  is  colored  without  swelling: 
Vegetable  silk  (blue), 

Bombax  cotton  (blue), 

Raw  esparto  (bright  green), 

Raw  fibre  of  Cordia  lalijolia  (blue), 
"       "      "  Sterculia  villosa  (blue). 

A  solution  of  anilin  sulphate  may  be  used  to  detect  lignifica- 
tion  in  a  fibre;  this  reagent  gives  the  following  color  reactions: 
(a)  The  color  of  the  fibre  is  not  changed  or  but  slightly: 

Cotton, 

Bombax  cotton  (very  slight  coloration), 

Cottonized  ramie,  also  the  bast  cells  of  raw  ramie. 

*  With  the  exception  of  the  external  cuticle,  the  inner  cell-wall,  and  dry  pro- 
toplasmic residue.  For  the  morphological  alterations  which  the  fibres  undergo 
by  treatment  with  this  reagent  see  under  the  description  of  the  separate  fibres. 


154  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Raw  flax, 

Raw  bast  fibres  of  Hibiscus  cannabinus  (very  slight  color- 
ation), 

Raw  bast  fibres  of  Calotropis  gigantea  (very  slight  colora- 
tion), 

Raw  sunn  hemp, 

Raw  New  Zealand  flax  (very  slight  coloration), 
Manila  hemp  (very  slight  coloration), 
(&)  The  fibre  is  distinctly  or  very  strongly  colored: 
Vegetable  silk  (intense  citron-yellow), 
Raw  jute  (golden  yellow  to  orange), 
Raw  bast  fibres  of  Abelmoschus  tetraphyllos  (golden  yellow), 

"       ' '       "      "  Urena  sinuata  (golden  yellow), 

"       "      "     "  Sida  retusa  (yellow), 
Raw  bast  fibre  of  Thespesia  lampas  (golden  yellow), 

"       "       "     "  Cordia  latifolia  (dull  yellow), 
Raw  hemp  (pale  yellow), 
Raw  esparto  (sulphur  yellow), 
Raw  fibre  of  Bromelia  karatas  (golden  yellow). 

5.  Chemical  Investigation  of  Vegetable  Fibres. — A  chemical 
study  of  the  fibres  involves  an  examination  of  their  chemical 
constituents.  As  already  stated,  though  cellulose  is  the  principal 
chemical  compound  to  be  found  in  vegetable  fibres,  yet  there 
are  certain  other  substances  present,  which  at  times  may  be 
characteristic  of  the  fibre.  Then,  again,  the  cellulose  which 
occurs  in  different  classes  of  fibres  appears  to  be  somewhat  dif- 
ferent in  its  chemical  properties,  which  has  led  to  the  supposition 
of  different  forms  of  cellulose,  already  spoken  of  as  ligno -cellulose, 
pecto-cellulose,  etc.  Though  the  chemistry  of  these  bodies  has 
been  somewhat  studied  with  reference  to  vegetable  fibres  by 
Cross  and  Bevan  and  a  few  others,  yet  the  subject  is  still  in  a 
very  crude  condition,  and  there  is  much  to  be  learnt  in  this  field 
of  chemical  research.  The  methods  for  the  chemical  study  of 
the  vegetable  fibres  adopted  by  Cross,  and  continued  by  other 
chemists,  may  be  stated  in  the  following  form:  A  separate 
portion  of  the  fibre  under  examination  is  taken  for  each  deter- 


THE   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.  155 

mination,  and  the  results   are  calculated  into  percentages  on  the 
•dry  weight  of  the  substance. 

(1)  Moisture. — This   may   be   called   hygroscopic    water   or 
water  of  condition;  it  is  obtained  by  drying  a  weighed  portion  of 
the  fibre  at  110°  C.  to  constant  weight.     If  dried  at  ioo°C.,  about 
i  per  cent,  of  the  water  will  be  retained.     The  percentage  of 
hygroscopic  moisture  in  the  vegetable  fibres  varies  considerably 
with  the  different  state  of  humidity  of  the  surrounding  air,  on 
which  account  it  is  recommended  that  the  results  of  the  analyses 
should  be  expressed  on  the  dry  weight  of  the  fibre.     It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  the  contents  of  hygroscopic  moisture  in  a  fibre 
appears  to  be  an  index  of  the  susceptibility  of  attack  by  hydro- 
lytic  agents,  and  that  the  highest  class  of  fibres  are  distinguished 
lay  their  relatively  low  amount  of  moisture. 

(2)  Ash. — This  is  taken  as  the  total  residue  left  after  ignition 
of  the  fibre,  and  represents  the  mineral  constituents.     The  pro- 
portion of  these  is  low  in  the  ligno -celluloses  and  higher  in  the 
pecto -celluloses,  especially  when  the  proportion  of  non-cellulose 
is  high.     Admixture  of  cellular  tissue  with  the  fibre  will  also 
raise  the  amount  of  ash,  as  the  cellular  tissue  contains  a  higher 
proportion  of  mineral  constituents. 

(3)  Hydrolysis. — This  refers  to  the  loss  of  weight  sustained 
by  the  fibre  (a)  on  boiling  for  five  minutes  with  a  i  per  cent, 
solution  of  caustic  soda,  and  (b)  further  loss  of  weight  on  con- 
tinuing to  boil  for  one  hour.     The  first  loss  in  weight  represents 
the  proportion  of  fibre  soluble  in  the  alkali,  the  second  represents 
the  proportion   of  the  fibre  decomposed   by  actual  hydrolysis. 
The  pecto-celluloses  are  often  so  resolved  by  the  action  of  the  dilute 
alkali  that  most  of  the  non-cellulose  is  dissolved  away.     The 
amount  of  hydrolysis  of  a  fibre  represents  in  some  measure  the 
power  of  resistance  of  a  fibre  to  the  action  of  the  boiling-out  and 
bleaching  processes,  as  well  as  the  power  of  resistance  to  actual 
wear  as  caused  by  frequent  washings  with  alkalies,  soaps,  etc. 

(4)  Cellulose. — The  determination  of  the  value  and  composi- 
tion of  the  cellulose  is  made  as  follows:     A  sample  of  the  fibre 
is  first  boiled  for  five  minutes  in  a  i  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  well  washed,  and  then  exposed  for  one  hour  at  the  ordinary 


156  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

temperature  to  an  atmosphere  of  chlorin  gas;  after  which  it  is 
removed,  washed,  and  treated  with  an  alkaline  solution  of  sodium 
sulphite,  gradually  raising  to  the  boil.  After  several  minutes  the 
fibre  is  washed,  and  finally  treated  with  dilute  acetic  acid,  washed, 
dried,  and  weighed.  The  residue  is  taken  as  cellulose,  and 
affords  an  important  criterion  as  to  the  composition  and  value 
of  the  raw  fibre 

(5)  Mercerizing, — This  is  represented  by  the  loss  in  weight 
sustained  by  the  fibre  after  treatment  for  one  hour  cold  with  a 
33  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  potash.    The  action  of  the  alkali 
often  causes  a  considerable  change  in  the  structure  of  the  fibre, 
especially  with  those   fibres   made   up  of   a   number  of  fibrils 
aggregated  into  bundles. 

(6)  Nitration. — This  is  represented  by  the  increase  in  weight 
sustained  by  the  fibre  when  treated  for  one  hour  with  a  mixture 
of  equal  volumes  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.    Any  change  in 
color  is  also  noted. 

(7)  Acid  Purification. — This    is  represented   by  the  loss  in 
weight  sustained  by  the  fibre  after  boiling  with  20  per  cent,  acetic 
acid,  washing  with  alcohol  and  water,  and  drying.    This  treat- 
ment is  intended  to  remove  from  the  fibre  all  accidental  irnpurities 
with  a  minimum  alteration  in  composition. 

(8)  Carbon  Percentage. — The  fibre  treated  as  above  (7)  is  sub- 
jected to  a  combustion  in  the  presence  of  chromic  anhydride  and 
sulphuric  acid,  and  the  resulting  gas,  composed  of  a  mixture  of 
carbon  monoxide  and  dioxide,  is  collected  and  measured.     As  the 
two  oxides  of  carbon  have  the  same  molecular  volume,  the  amount 
of  carbon  in  unit  volume  is  independent  of  the  composition  of 
the  gas.     The  amount  of  carbon  in  cotton  cellulose  (the  typical 
cellulose)  is  44.4  per  cent.;    the  compound  celluloses,  however, 
have  either  a  lower  percentage  in  the  one  class  (40  to  43  per  cent.), 
or  a  higher  percentage  in  the  second  class  (45  to  50  per  cent.), 
the  pecto-celluloses  being   included  in   the  first   class  and  the 
ligno-celluloses  in  the  second  class. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

COTTON. 

i.  Historical. — The  use  of  cotton  as  a  textile  fibre  dates 
back  to  antiquity,  mention  of  it  being  found  in  the  writings  of 
Herodotus  (44$  B.C.).*  It  was  used  in  India,  Egypt,  and  China. 
The  first  European  country  to  make  cotton  goods  appears  to 
have  been  Spain.t 

The  use  of  cotton  hi  India  dates  back  to  prehistoric  times, 
and  it  is  often  referred  to  as  early  as  800  B.C.  in  the  ancient  laws 
of  Manu.J  It  may  be  stated  that  from  1500  B.C.  to  about  the 

*  "There  are  trees  which  grow  wild  there  (India),  the  fruit  of  which  is  a  wool 
exceeding  in  beauty  and  goodness  that  of  sheep.  The  Indians  make  their  clothes 
of  this  tree-wool."  (Herodotus,  III,  106.)  The  same  writer  also  refers  to  the 
clothing  of  Xerxes'  army  as  being  composed  of  "cotton  fibre."  (Herodotus,  VII, 

65.) 

t  A  rather  ambiguous  passage  in  the  Historia  Critica  de  Espana  indicates 
that  the  manufacture  of  linen,  silk,  and  cotton  existed  in  Spain  as  early  as  the 
ninth  century.  De  Maries  states  that  cotton  manufacture  was  introduced  into 
Spain  during  the  reign  of  Abderahman  III.,  in  the  tenth  century,  by  the  Moors. 
In  the  fourteenth  century  Granada  was  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  cotton. 
A  commercial  historiographer  of  Barcelona  states  that  one  of  the  most  famous 
and  useful  industries  of  that  city  was  the  manufacture  of  cotton;  its  workers 
were  united  in  a  guild  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  names  of  two  of  its  streets 
have  preserved  the  memory  of  the  ancient  locality  of  their  shops.  There  is  much 
uncertainty  as  to  when  the  manufacture  of  cotton  was  first  introduced  into  Eng- 
land; the  first  authentic  record  of  such  is  in  Robert's  Treasure  of  Traffic,  pub- 
lished in  1641. 

\  The  following  quotations  are  from  the  Books  of  Manu.  The  sacrificial 
thread  of  the  Brahman  must  be  made  of  cotton  (karpasi),  so  as  to  be  put  over 
the  head  in  three  strings  (Book  II,  No.  44).  Let  a  weaver  who  has  received 
10  palas  of  cotton-  hread  give  it  back  increased  to  n  by  the  rice-water  and  the 
like  used  in  weaving;  he  who  does  otherwise  shall  pay  a  fine  of  12  panas  (Book 
VIII,  No.  397).  Theft  of  cotton-thread  was  made  punishable  by  fines  of  three 
times  the  value  of  the  article  stolen  (Book  VIII,  No.  236). 

IS7 


158  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

same  number  of  years  after  the  Christian  era,  India  was  the 
centre  of  the  cotton  industry,  and  the  cloth  which  was  woven  in 
a  rather  crude  and  primitive  manner  has  rarely  been  equalled 
for  fineness  and  quality.*  Cotton  was  introduced  into  China 
and  Japan  from  India,  but  its  adoption  by  these  countries  was 
slow.f  It  was  probably  introduced  into  China  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest  of  this  country  by  the  Tartars,  but  it  was  not  until 
about  1300  A.D.  that  the  fibre  was  cultivated  for  manufacturing 
purposes.  J  In  Egypt  there  is  some  question  as  to  whether  or  not 
cotton  was  used  except  in  rather  late  times,  flax  being  the  common 
article  in  that  country  for  the  manufacture  of  cloth.  But  there  is- 
evidently  a  good  deal  of  confusion  in  the  early  writers  respecting 
the  terms  used  for  "flax"  and  "cotton,"  §  and  it  may  be  that 


*  Two  Arabian  travellers  of  the  middle  ages,  writing  of  India,  say:  "In  this 
country  they  make  garments  of  such  extraordinary  perfection  that  nowhere  else 
are  the  like  to  be  seen;  these  garments  are  woven  to  that  degree  of  fineness  that 
they  may  be  drawn  through  a  ring  of  moderate  size."  (Anciennes  Relations 
des  Indes  et  de  la  Chine,  p.  21.)  Marco  Polo  (Book  III,  ch.  21  and  28),  about 
1298  A.D.,  mentions  India  as  producing  "the  finest  and  most  beautiful  cottons 
that  are  to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  world."  Tavernier,  in  his  Travels,  says, 
of  India  that  some  calicos  are  made  so  fine  that  one  can  hardly  feel  them  in  the 
hand,  and  the  thread  when  spun  is  scarcely  discernible;  that  the  rich  have  tur- 
bans of  so  fine  a  cloth  that  30  ells  of  it  weigh  less  than  4  ounces.  The  poetic 
writers  of  the  Orient  call  these  cloths  "webs  of  woven  wind."  There  is  the  record 
of  a  muslin  turban  thirty  yards  in  length,  contained  in  a  cocoanut  set  with  jewels, 
which  was  so  exquisitely  fine  that  it  could  scarcely  be  felt  by  the  touch. 

t  Fesca  (Japanischen  Landwirthschajt,  Pt.  II,  p.  485)  says  that  cotton  was- 
introduced  into  Japan  accidentally  in  the  year  781  A.D.  from  India,  but  its  cul- 
tivation was  not  continued.  Several  centuries  later  it  was  no  doubt  introduced  again 
by  the  Portuguese;  it  was  not,  however,  until  the  seventeenth  century,  during  the 
reign  of  Tokugawa,  that  the  cultivation  of  cotton  became  at  all  general  in  Japan. 
A  great  deal  of  cotton  is  now  grown  in  Korea,  having  been  introduced  into  that 
country  from  China  about  500  years  ago.  The  Korean  cotton  is  of  longer  staple 
and  of  better  quality  than  the  Chinese  cotton,  as  the  soil  and  climate  in  Korea 
is  better  adapted  to  its  growth. 

%  Marco  Polo  (Book  II,  ch.  24)  gives  no  account  of  the  culture  of  cotton  in 
China,  except  in  the  province  of  Fo-Kien,  but  speaks  of  silk  as  being  the  custom- 
ary dress  of  the  people. 

§  Herodotus  states  that  the  Egyptian  priests  wore  linen  clothes,  but  Pliny 
refers  to  them  as  also  wearing  cotton  material,  and  Philostratus  supports  this, 
latter  statement.  The  words  translated  as  "linen"  do  not  always  refer  to  the 
fibre  of  which  the  cloth  was  made,  but  often  have  reference  to  the  general  appearance 
of  the  material;  therefore,  cloth  made  from  either  flax  or  cotton  alone,  or  mixed» 


COTTON.  159 

the  ancient  Egyptians  were  better  acquainted  with  the  use  of 
the  cotton  fibre  than  we  imagine;  we  at  least 'know  that  the 
cotton  plant  was  grown  there  at  a  very  early  date.  The  use 
of  cotton  was  evidently  kno  \vn  to  the  Greeks  *  soon  after  the 
invasion  of  India  by  Alexander,  though  this  does  not  signify  that 
the  Greeks  themselves  either  grew  the  cotton  plant  or  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  fibre  into  clothes.  The  cotton  plant 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  cultivated  in  Italy  until  some  time 
after  the  Christian  era,  although  a  knowledge  of  the  fibre  and  a 
probable  use  of  the  cloth  made  from  it  was  no  doubt  known  to 
them  a  long  time  previous.f  For  the  real  introduction  into 
Europe  of  the  cotton  plant  and  the  manufacture  of  the  fibre 
into  cloth  we  must  look  to  the  Mohammedans,  who  spread  this 
knowledge  throughout  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  during  the  period  of  their  wide-spread  conquests.^ 
As  to  the  knowledge  and  use  of  cotton  in  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
this  seems  to  also  have  extended  to  very  early  times,  for  when 
Columbus  first  came  to  the  West  Indies  in  1492,  he  found  cot- 
ton extensively  cultivated,  and  the  inhabitants  of  these  islands 
wove  cloth  from  the  fibre.  Among  the  Mexicans  cotton  was 
found  to  be  the  chief  article  of  clothing,  as  these  people  did  not 
possess  either  wool  or  silk  and  were  not  acquainted  with  the 

was  called  linen.  Even  the  fact  that  all  Egyptian  mummy-cloths  so  far  examined 
appear  to  consist  of  flax  is  no  argument  against  the  probable  use  of  cotton  by 
these  people;  it  only  proves  that  flax  alone  was  employed- for  certain  religious 
purposes,  and  cotton,  wool,  and  silk  may  have  been  in  common  use  for  the  cloth- 
ing of  the  people. 

*  Aristobulus,  a  contemporary  of  Alexander,  mentions  the  cotton  plant  under 
the  name  of  the  "wool-bearing  tree,"  and  states  that  the  capsules  of  this  tree 
contain  seeds  which  are  taken  out,  and  the  remaining  fibre  is  then  combed  like 
wool.  (Strabo,  XV,  i.)  Nearchus,  an  admiral  of  Alexander,  about  327  B.C., 
says:  "There  are  in  India  trees  bearing,  as  it  were,  bunches  of  wool.  The  natives 
made  linen  garments  of  it,  wearing  a  shirt  which  reached  to  the  middle  of  the 
leg,  a  sheet  folded  about  the  shoulders,  and  a  turban  rolled  around  the  head.  The 
linen  made  by  them  from  this  substance  was  finer  and  whiter  than  any  other." 
(Arrian.  Ind.,  ch.  16.) 

t  Miiller  (Handbuch  der  klas.  Alterth.  Wissensch.,  vol.  iv,  p.  873)  states  that 
cotton  cloth  was  used  for  clothing  by  the  Romans  prior  to  284  A.D. 

1  Abu  Zacaria  Ebn  el  Awam,  a  Moorish  writer  of  the  twelfth  century,  gives 
a  full  account  of  the  proper  method  of  cultivating  the  cotton  plant,  and  also  men- 
tions that  cotton  was  cultivated  in  Sicily. 


160  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

use  of  flax,  although  the  plant  grew  in  their  country.  *  In  Peru 
cotton  was  also  in  use  from  an  early  date,  and  at  the  time  of 
Pizarro's  conquest  of  that  country  in  1522  the  inhabitants  were 
clothed  in  cotton  garments;  cotton  cloths  have  also  been  found 
on  Peruvian  mummies  of  a  very  ancient  date.  Furthermore, 
the  cotton  plant  is  indigenous  to  Peru  and  from  it  is  obtained 
a  special  variety  known  as  Peruvian  cotton.  According  to  Ban- 
croft, the  first  attempt  towards  cotton  cultivation  in  the  Amer- 
ican colonies  was  in  Virginia,  during  Wyatt's  administration,  in 
1621.  The  first  mill  in  the  United  States  for  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  goods  appears  to  have  been  erected  at  Beverly,  Massa- 
chusetts, in  1787.  The  world's  annual  consumption  of  cotton 
at  the  present  lime  is  about  6,500,000,000  Ibs. 

2.  Origin  and  Growth. — The  cotton  fibre  consists  of  the  seed- 
hairs  of  several  species  of  the  genus  Gossypium,  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  of  Malvacea.^ 

*  Among  the  presents  sent  by  Cortez  to  Charles  V.  of  Spain  were  many  fabrics 
made  from  cotton. 

f  The  following  is  a  description  of  the  botany  of  cotton  given  in  Bulletin 
No.  33  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture:  "  The  cotton  plant  belongs  to  the 
Malvaceae,  or  the  mallow  family,  and  is  known  scientifically  by  the  generic  name 
Gossypium.  It  is  indigenous  principally  to  the  islands  and  maritime  regions  of  the 
tropics,  but  under  cultivation  its  range  has  been  extended  to  40°  or  more  on  either 
side  of  the  equator,  or  to  the  isothermal  line  of  60°  F.  In  the  United  Statt  s 
latitude  37°  north  about  represents  the  limit  of  economic  growth.  The  Gossypium 
plant  is  herbaceous,  shrubby,  or  arborescent,  perennial,  but  in  cultivation  her- 
baceous and  annual  or  biennial,  often  hairy,  with  long,  simple,  or  slightly  branched 
hairs,  or  soft  and  tomentose,  or  hirsute,  or  all  the  pubescence  short  and  stellate, 
rarely  smooth  throughout;  stem,  branches,  petioles,  peduncles,  leaves,  involucre, 
corolla,  ovary,  style,  capsule,  and  sometimes  the  cotyledons  more  or  less  covered 
with  small  black  spots  or  glands.  Roots  tap-rooted,  branching,  long,  and  pene- 
trating the  soil  deeply.  Stems  erect,  terete,  with  dark -colored  ash-red,  or  red 
bark  and  white  wood,  branching  or  spreading  widely.  Branches  terete  or  some- 
what angled,  erect  or  spreading,  or  in  cultivation  sometimes  very  short.  Leaves 
alternate,  petioled,  cordate,  or  subcordate,  3-  to  7-,  or  rarely  Q-lobed,  occasionally 
some  of  the  lower  and  upper  ones  entire,  3-  to  7-veined.  Veins  branching  and 
netted;  the  midvein  and  sometimes  adjacent  ones  bear  a  gland  one-third  or 
ess  the  distance  from  their  bases,  or  glands  may  be  wholly  absent.  Stipules 
in  pairs,  linear-lanceolate,  acuminate,  often  ceduous.  Flowers  pedunculate. 
Peduncles  subangular  or  angular,  often  thickened  towards  the  ends,  short  or 
very  short,  erect  or  spreading;  the  fruit  is  sometimes  pendulous,  sometimes 
glandular,  bearing  a  leafy  involucre.  Involucre  3-leaved,  or  in  cultivation  some- 


COTTON.  161 

The  cotton  plant  is  a  shrub  which  reaches  the  height  of  four 
to  six  ft.    It  is  more  or  less  indigenous  to  nearly  all  subtropical 


FIG.  44. — American  Upland  Cotton  Shrub.     (After  Dodge.) 

countries,  though  it  appears  to  be  best  capable  of  cultivation  in 
warm,  humid  climates  where  the  soil  is  sandy,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
times  4;  bracteoles  often  large,  cordate,  erect,  appressed  or  spreading  at  sum- 
mit, sometimes  coalescent  at  base  or  adnate  to  the  calyx,  dentate  or  laciniate, 
sometimes  entire  or  nearly  so,  rarely  linear.  Calyx  short,  cup-shaped,  truncate, 
shortly  5  dentate  or  more  or  less  5 -parted.  Corolla  hypogynous.  Petals  5,  often 
coalescent  at  base  and  by  their  claws  adnate  to  the  lower  part  of  stamen  tube, 
obovate,  more  or  less  unequally  transversely  dilated  at  summit,  convolute  in 
bud.  Staminal  column  dilated  at  base,  arched,  surrounding  the  ovary,  naked 
below,  above  narrowed  and  bearing  the  anthers.  Filaments  numerous,  filiform, 
simple  or  branched,  conspicuous,  exserted.  Anthers  kidney-shaped,  i -celled, 
dehiscent  by  a  semicircular  opening  into  two  halves.  Ovary  sessile,  simple,  3-  to 
5-celled.  Ovules  few  or  many,  in  two  series.  Style  clavate,  3- to  5-parted;  divi- 
sions sometimes  erect,  sometimes  twisted  and  adhering  together,  channelled, 
bearing  the  stigmas.  Capsule  more  or  less  thickened,  leathery,  oval,  ovate- 


1 62  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

hood  of  the  sea,  lakes,  or  large  rivers.    It  appears  to  thrive  most 
readily  in  North  and  South  America,  India,  and   Egypt;    it  has 


FIG.  45. — Sea-island  Cotton  Shrub.     (After  Dodge.) 

also  been  cultivated  in  Australia,  but  not  as  yet  with  any  great 
degree  of  success;  inferior  qualities  have  been  grown  along  the 

acuminate,  subglobose,  mucronate,  loculicidally  dehiscent  by  3  to  5  valves.  Seed 
numerous,  subglobose,  ovate  or  subovate,  oblong  or  angular,  densely  covered 
with  cotton  or  rarely  glabrous.  Fibre  sometimes  of  two  kinds,  one  short  and 
closely  adherent  to  the  seed,  the  other  longer,  more  or  less  silky,  of  single  simple 
flattened  cells  more  or  less  spirally  twisted,  more  readily  separable  from  the  seed. 
Albumin  thin,  membranous,  or  none.  Cotyledons  plicate,  auriculate  at  base 
enveloping  the  straight  radicle.  " 


COTTON.  163 

coasts  of  Africa ;  that  grown  in  Europe  (Italy  and  Spain)  is  prac- 
tically negligible,  as  far  as  commercial  considerations  are  con- 
cerned.* In  America,  India,  and  Egypt  the  cotton  plant  is  annual 

*  Monie  (The  Cotton  Fibre)  gives  the  following  account  of  the  cultivation 
of  the  cotton  plant:  "The  plant,  although  indigenous  to  almost  all  warm  climates, 
is  nevertheless  only  cultivated  within  a  very  limited  area  for  commercial  pur- 
poses, the  principal  centres  of  cotton  agriculture  being  in  Egypt,  the  southern 
portions  of  the  United  States,  India,  Brazil,  the  west  and  southern  coasts  of  Africa, 
and  the  West  India  Islands.  A  large  amount  of  white  cotton  is  raised  in  China, 
but  this  is  almost  entirely  used  in  the  home  manufactures.  The  time  when  sow- 
ing is  begun  in  the  different  districts  varies  considerably,  being  largely  dependent 
on  climatic  influences.  The  seasons,  however,  are  generally  as  follows :  American. — 
From  the  middle  of  March  to  the  middle  of  April.  Egyptian. — From  the  begin- 
ning of  March  to  the  end  of  April.  Peruvian  and  Brazilian. — From  the  end 
of  December  to  the  end  of  April.  Indian  or  Surat. — From  May  to  the  beginning 
of  August.  In  the  various  American  plantations  the  sowing  time  begins  and 
ends  almost  simultaneously,  while  in  other  countries,  especially  where  the  atmos- 
phere and  climate  are  subject  to  much  variation,  the  period  of  planting  fluctu- 
ates; the  plants  in  some  parts  being  several  inches  above  the  ground,  while  in 
other  parts  of  the  same  country  the  fields  may  be  only  under  preparation.  When 
the  sowing  is  finished,  and  before,  and  some  time  after  the  crop  makes  its  appear- 
ance, keeping  the  ground  free  from  weeds  is  the  main  object  to  be  looked  to, 
otherwise  the  soil  would  become  much  impoverished  and  the  product  would 
be  of  an  inferior  quality.  In  from  eight  days  to  a  fortnight  after  sowing,  the 
young  shoots  first  appear  above  ground  in  the  form  of  a  hook,  but  in  a  few  hours 
afterwards  the  seed  end  of  the  stalk  or  stem  is  raised  out  of  the  ground,  disclos- 
ing two  leaves  folded  over  and  closed  together.  The  leaves  and  stems  of  these 
young  plants  are  very  smooth  and  oily  and  of  a  fleshy  color  and  appearance,  and, 
as  before  stated,  extremely  tender  (see  Fig.  530).  In  a  short  time  after  the  plant 
has  reached  the  stage  shown  in  the  illustration,  it  begins  to  straighten  itself  and 
deepen  in  color,  or,  rather,  changes  to  a  light  oily  green,  while  the  two  leaves  gradu- 
ally separate  themselves  until  they  attain  the  forms  shown  in  Fig.  53,  b  and 
c.  When  this  stage  has  been  reached  its  development  is  rapid,  and  proceeds  in 
a  similar  form  to  ordinary  shrubs  until  it  reaches  maturity.  In  examining  the 
cotton  plant  from  time  to  time  during  its  growth  some  interesting  and  instruc- 
ive  objects  will  be  observed.  Firstly,  in  regard  to  the  formation  of  the  le.aves, 
it  will  be  found  that  they  vary  in  shape  on  different  parts  of  the  stem.  Thus, 
for  instance,  on  a  Gallini  Egyptian  (G.  barbadense)  plant  the  lower  leaves  were 
entire,  the  centre  or  middle  three-lobed,  while  the  upper  leaves  were  five-lobed. 
In  the  G.  hirsutum  species  the  lower  leaves  have  five,  and  some  three  lobes,  with 
the  small  branch  petioles  of  a  hairy  nature,  while  the  upper  leaves  are  entire 
and  undivided.  In  the  Peruvian  cotton  plant  the  lower  leaves  are  entire  and 
of  an  oval  shape,  while  the  upper  leaves  have  five  acuminated  lobes.  Another 
interesting  point  observable  in  the  growth  of  the  cotton  plant  is  the  presence 
of  a  small  cavity  situated  at  the  lower  end  of  the  main  vein  under  each  leaf. 
Through  this  opening,  on  warm  days,  the  plant  discharges  any  excess  of  the 


164 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


in  its  growth,  but  in  hot  tropical  climates,  and  in  South  America, 
it  becomes  a  perennial  plant  and  assumes  more  of  a  tree-like 
form.  The  leaf  of  the  cotton  plant  has  three-pointed  lobes; 


FlG.  46. — Leaf  of  the  Cotton  Plant. 

the  flower  has  five  petals,  yellow  at  the  base,  but  becoming  almost 
white  at  the  edges.  The  fruit  of  the  cotton  plant  forms  the  cotton 

resinous  matter  which  circulates  through  its  branches.  Before  the  plant  attains 
its  full  height  it  begins  to  throw  off  flower-stalks,  which  are  generally  (when  per- 
fectly formed)  small  in  diameter  and  of  considerable  length;  on  the  extremity 
of  these  stalks  the  blossom  pod  after  a  time  appears,  encased  in  three  leaf-sheaths 
or  calyxes,  with  fringes  of  various  lengths.  Gradually  this  pod  expands  until 
it  attains  to  about  the  size  of  a  bean,  when  it  bursts  and  displays  the  blossom. 
This  blossom  only  exists  in  full  development  for  about  twenty-four  hours,  when 
it  begins  to  revolve  imperceptibly  on  its  axis  and  in  about  a  day's  time  twists  itself 
completely  off.  When  the  blossom  has  fallen,  a  small  three-,  and  in  some  cases, 
five-celled  triangular  capsular  pod  of  a  dark -green  color  is  disclosed,  which  increases 
in  size  until  it  reaches  that  of  a  large  filbert.  Meantime  the  seeds  and  filaments 
have  been  in  course  of  formation  inside  the  pod,  and  when  growth  is  completed 
the  expansion  of  the  fibre  causes  it  to  burst  into  sections,  in  each  cell  of  which, 
and  adhering  firmly  to  the  surface  of  the  seeds,  is  a  tuft  of  the  downy  material." 


COTTON.  165 

boll,  which  contains  the  seeds  with  the  attached  fibres.  The 
boll  consists  of  from  three  to  five  segments,  and  on  ripening 
bursts  open  *  and  discloses  a  mass  of  pearly  white  downy  fibres 
(Fig.  49),  in  which  are  imbedded  the  brownish-black  to  black- 
colored  cottonseeds.  The  cotton  should  be  picked  as  soon  as 
possible  after  ripening;  the  seeds  are  then  separated  from  the 


FIG.  47. — Leaf  and  Flower  of  Sea-island  Cotton. 
(After  Bulletin  No.  jj,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

fibres  by  a  process  known  as  ginning.     Besides  the  fibre  itself, 
nearly  all  of  the  other  product^  of  the  cotton  are  now  utilized 


*  According  to  Heuze  (Plantes  Industrielles,  vol.  i,  p.  139)  the  time  required 
for  the  maturity  of  cotton  is  divided  as  follows:  From  seeding  to  flowering,  New 
Orleans  80  to  90  days  sea-island  TOO  to  no  days;  from  flowering  to  maturity, 
New  Orleans  70  to  80  days,  and  sea-island  about  80  days,  making  the  total 
period  of  growth  about  5  to  6J  months. 


i66 


THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


commercially.*    The  seeds  are  of  especial  value,  as  they  contain 
a  large  quantity  of  oil,  which  is  expressed  and  used  for  soap- 


FlG.  48. — Leaf  and  Flower  of  India  Cotton,  Gossypium  herbaceum. 
(After  Bulletin  No.  jj,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

*  According  to  Bulletin  No.  jj  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.)  the  following  is  the  pro- 
portion of  the  different  parts  of  the  cotton  plant,  calculated  on  the  dried  or  water- 
free  material : 


Part  of  the  Plant. 

Weight. 

Per  Cent. 

Ounces. 

Grams. 

Roots                      

0-5*3 
1-35° 
1.181 
0.829 

1-343 
0.615 

H-55 
38.26 
33-48 
23-49 
38.07 
17-45 

8.80 

23-I5 
20.25 
14.21 
23-03 
10.56 

Stems 

Bolls 

Seed 

Lint  (fibre) 

Total  

5-83I 

165.30 

100.00 

This  table  was  compiled  from  the  examination  of  a  large  number  of    plants 
and  represents  the  average  composition  of  the  cotton  plant  as  stated. 


COTTON. 


167 


making  and  many  other  purposes,  while  the  residuum  of  meal 
and  hulls  is  converted  into  cattle  foods  and  fertilizer.*    The  short 


FIG.  49 Sections  of  the  Cotton  Boll  (Egyptian).     (After  Witt.) 

A,  stem;  £,  calyx;  C,  capsule;  D,  seed;  £,  cotton  fibre. 

*  The  following  table  presents  the  fertilizing  constituents  in  a  crop  of  cotton 
yielding  100  Ibs.  of  lint  per  acre,  expressed  in  Ibs.  per  acre.  The  weight  of 
the  total  crop  from  the  acre  was  847  Ibs. 


Part  of  Plant. 

Nitrogen. 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid. 

Potash. 

Lime. 

Magnesia. 

Roots  (83  Ibs  ) 

o  76 

04? 

I   06 

6  16 

2    28 

-,  46 

I  67 

Bolls  (135  Ibs  ) 

'£ 

Seed  (218  Ibs.)  

6.82 

2  .  77 

2    S^ 

ce 

I   20 

Lint  (100  Ibs  )  

o  34 

O    IO 

o  46 

o  08 

Total  (847  Ibs.)  

20.71 

8.17 

13.06 

12.  60 

4-75 

The  following  table  presents    the    proximate  constitutents  of   the  various 


1 68 


THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES 


fibres,  or  nep,  left  on  the  seed  after  the  first  ginning  are  also 
recovered  by  a  second  process  and  are  known  as  linters  t  which 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cotton-batting,  guncotton,*  etc. 
The  separation  of  seed -particles  from  the  fibre  is  not  always 
perfect,  and  they  frequently  make  their  appearance  in  gray 
calico  in  the  form  of  black  specks  or  motes,  and  as  these  contain 
small  quantities  of  oil  and  tannin;  matters  which  are  pressed 
out  into  the  surrounding  fibres,  they  cause  specks  and  uneven- 
ness  in  dyeing  and  finishing.  If  they  come  in  contact  with  solu- 
tions or  materials  containing  iron  compounds,  a  violet  stain  will 
be  produced,  the  color  of  which,  however,  may  not  develop  for 
some  months. 

Bowman    (loc.   cit.)   gives    an    excellent    description    of   the 
physiological  development  of  the  cotton  fibre,  f  from  which    the 

parts  of  the  cotton  plant  as  given  by  analyses  of  a  large  number  of  samples  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture: 


Part  of  Plant. 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Fibre. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
Extract. 

Fat. 

10  oo 

17^7 

Roots 

980 

4.8  s  7 

2    77 

•*o 

30   87 

Leaves  

10.00 

12.87 

21  .64 

12    ^7 

*6  82 

6.05 

Bolls  

10.00 

4  9° 

it;  80 

10   7^ 

4^    42 

4.07 

Seed  

902 

4  74 

10  ^8 

22    c;7 

IQ     AS 

Lint.  .    .             

6  74 

i  6? 

I    SO 

8771 

r     70 

o  61 

*  With  sea-island  and  Egyptian  cottons  the  seed  is  entirely  freed  from  lint 
by  ginning,  but  with  upland  cottons  the  quantity  of  lint  still  adhering  to  the  seed 
after  it  has  passed  through  the  gin  amounts  to  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  total 
weight  of  the  seed.  An  Experiment  Station  Report  shows  that  the  seeds  from 
upland  cotton  after  ginning  consist  of  54.22  per  cent,  of  kernels  (yielding  36.88 
per  cent,  of  oil  and  63.12  per  cent,  of  meal)  and  45.78  per  cent,  of  hulls  (yield- 
ing 27.95  per  cent,  of  linters  and  72.05  per  cent,  residue);  so  that  in  the  ginned 
seed  there  is  present  the  following: 

Meal 34.22  per  cent. 

Oil.    20 .  oo    "      " 

Hulls 35.78     "      " 

Linters 10 .  oo     "      " 

According  to  Adriane  (Chem.  News,  Jan.,  1865)  the  seeds  fom  Egyptian 
cotton  yield  37.45  per  cent,  of  hulls  and  62.55  per  cent,  of  kernels. 

t_The  following  remarks  relative  to  the  development  of  the  cotton  fibre  from 

the  seed  are  taken  from  Bulletin  No.  jj  (vide  supra):  "If  a  very  immature 


COTTON  169 

following  is  quoted:  "In  their  earliest  stages  the  young  cotton 
fibres  appear  to  have  a  circular  section  arising  from  the  com- 
parative thickness  of  the  tube-walls;  but  as  these  wralls  gradually 
become  thinner  by  the  longitudinal  growth  of  the  hair  and  the 
pressure  to  \vhich  they  are  subjected  by  the  contact  of  surround- 
ing fibres  enclosed  within  the  pod,  they  gradually  become  flat- 


FIG.  50. — Typical  Cotton  Fibres.  (X3<X>.)  A,  normal  fibre  showing  regular 
twists;  B,  straight  fibre  without  twists;  C,  a  knot  or  irregularity  in  growth  of 
fibre.  (Micrograph  by  author. ) 

tened,  and  just  before  the  pod  bursts  the  outer  walls  of  the  cells 
have  become  so  attenuated  in  the  longest  fibres  as  to  be  almost 
invisible  even  under  high  microscopic  powers,  and  present  the 

cotton  boll  be  cut  transversely,  the  cut  section  will  show  that  it  is  divided  by  longi- 
tudinal walls  into  three  or  more  divisions,  and  the  seeds  will  be  shown  attached 
to  the  inner  angle  ot  each  division.  The  seeds  retain  this  attachment  until  they 
have  nearly  reached  their  mature  size  and  the  growth  of  lint  has  begun  on  them, 
when  their  attachments  begin  to  be  absorbed,  and  by  the  increased  growth  of 
the  lint  the  seeds  are  forced  into  the  centre  of  the  cavity.  The  development  of 
the  fibre  commences  at  the  end  of  the  seed  farthest  from  its  attachment  and 
gradually  spreads  over  ths  seed  as  the  process  of  growth  continues.  The  first 
appearance  of  the  cotton  fibre  occurs  a  considerable  time  before  the  seed  has 
attained  its  full  growth  and  commences  by  the  development  of  cells  from  the 
surface  of  the  seed  These  cells  seem  to  have  their  origin  in  the  second  layer 
of  cellular  tissue,  and  force  themselves  through  the  epidermal  layer,  which  seems 
to  be  gradually  absorbed  The  cells  which  originate  the  fibre  are  characterized 
by  the  thickness  of  their  cell-walls  when  compared  with  their  diameter." 


170  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

appearance  of  a  thin,  pellucid,  transparent  ribbon.  With  the 
bursting  of  the  pod,  however,  a  change  occurs.  The  admission 
of  air  and  sunlight  causes  a  gradual  unfolding  of  the  hairy  plexus, 
and  the  rapid  consolidation  of  the  liquid  cell-contents  on  the 
inner  surface  of  the  cell- wall  gives  them  a  greater  thickness  and 
density,  which  is  further  increased  by  the  gradual  shrinking- 
in  of  the  walls  themselves  upon  the  cell-contents.  There  is 
also  a  gradual  rounding  and  thickening  of  the  fibre,  which  in- 
creases by  the  deposition  of  matter  on  the  inner  wall  of  the  cell. 


FIG.  51.— Typical  Cotton  Fibres.  (X  300.)  A,  broad  flat  fibre  near  base;  B, 
thick  rounded  fibre;  C,  fibre  near  pointed  end;  D,  cut  end  of  fibre.  (Micro, 
graph  by  author.) 

As  this  action  is  not  perfectly  uniform,  arising  from  the  unequal 
exposure  of  different  parts  of  the  fibres  to  light  and  air,  it  causes 
a  twisting  of  the  hairs,  which  is  always  a  characteristic  of  cotton 
when  viewed  under  the  microscope,  and  the  flat  collapsed  por- 
tions of  the  tube  form  so  many  reflecting  surfaces,  to  which  the 
brightness  of  the  fibre  when  stretched  tight  in  the  fingers  is  no 
doubt  due.  Another  change  also  occurs  at  this  stage,  a  change 
which  corresponds  to  the  ripening  of  fruit.  In  the  earliest  period 
of  their  formation  the  growing  cells  are  filled  with  juices  which 
are  more  or  less  astringent  in  character.  Under  the  influence 
of  light  and  air  these  cell  contents  undergo  a  chemical  change, 


COTTON. 


171 


in  which  the  astringent  principles  are  replaced  by  more  or  less 
saccharine  or  neutral  juices,  until  in  the  perfectly  ripe  cotton 
fibre  the  cell-walls  are  composed  of  almost  pure  cellulose." 

The  cell- wall  of  the  cotton  is  thin  in  comparison  with  that  of 
the  bast  fibres,  but  in  comparison  with  the  other  seed-hairs  it 
is  remarkably  thick.  This  accounts  for  its  much  greater  strength 
over  the  latter.  In  completely  developed  fibres  the  thickness 
of  the  cell-wall  is  from  one-third  to  two-thirds  of  the  total  thick- 
ness of  the  fibre  itself. 

The  quality  of  the  cotton  fibre  depends  not  only  on  the  species 
of  the  plant  from  which  it  is  derived,  but  also  on  the  manner 


FIG.  52. — Cotton  Bolls. 

of  its  cultivation.  The  conditions  which  exercise,  perhaps, 
the  greatest  influence  are :  (a)  the  seed,  (b)  the  soil,  (c)  the  mode 
of  cultivation,  (d)  the  climatic  conditions.*  The  seed  for  sowing 
must  be  carefully  and  specially  chosen  for  the  purpose.  A 

*  It  is  said  that  the  best  average  daily  temperature  for  the  growth  of  cotton 
is  from  60°  to  68°  F.  for  the  period  from  germination  to  flowering,  and  fiom  68° 
to  78°  F.  from  flowering  to  maturity.  According  to  Dr.  Wight  (Jour.  Agr.  Hort. 
Soc.  Indii,  vol.  7,  p.  23),  for  the  proper  maturing  of  the  best  qualities  of  American 
cotton  an  increasing  temperature  during  the  period  of  greatest  growth  is  required; 
the  failure  to  produce  in  India  a  quality  of  fibre  equal  to  the  American  product 
from  the  same  kind  of  seed  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  in  the  climate  of  the  former 
country  there  exists  a  diminishing  rather  than  an  increasing  average  daily  tem- 
perature. 


172 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


very  dry  soil  produces  harsh  and  brittle  cotton,  the  fibres  of 
which  are  very  irregular  in  length;  a  moist  and  sandy  soil  pro- 
duces a  very  desirable  cotton  of  long  and  fine  staple.*  The  best 
soil  is  considered  to  be  a  light  loam,  while  a  damp  clay  is  regarded 
as  the  worst.  Soils  situated  in  proximity  to  the  sea,  and  there- 
fore containing  considerable  saline  matter,  appear  to  furnish 
the  most  valuable  varieties  of  cotton,  and  it  is  claimed  that  the 


a  b  c 

FIG.  53 The  Cotton  Plant  in  the  Early  Stages  of  its  Growth. 

saline  constituents  of  the  soil  have  considerable    influence   on 
the  growth  and  development  of  the  cotton  fibre. 

3.  Varieties  of   Cotton.f — The  classification  of  the  different 

*  An  excess  of  rain  causes  the  plant  itself  to  grow  too  rapidly  and  luxuriantly 
at  the  expense  of  the  fruit  and  consequently  there  is  less  fibre  produced.  A  long 
drought  causes  a  stunted  growth  of  the  plant,  but  few  bolls  are  produced,  and 
these  ripen  prematurely. 

t  The  various  names  given  to  the  cotton  fibre  in  different  countries  may  be 
of  interest;  they  are  as  follows: 

India .  . .,. Pucii 

Spain Algodon 

Yucatan  and  ancient  Mexico Ychcaxihitvitl 

Tahiti Vavai 

France Coton 

Italy Cotone 

Germany Baumwolle 

Persia Pembeh  or  Poombeh 

Arabia Gatn,  Kotan,  or  Kutn 

Cochin  China Cay  Haung 

China Hoa  mein 

Japan Watta  ik  or  Watta  noki 


Siam 

Hindoostan 

Mysore  and  Bombay 
Mongolia 


Tonfaa 

Nurma 

Deo  Kurpas  and  Deo  Kapas 

Kohung 


COTTON.  173 

species  of  cotton  plant  varies  with  different  authorities;  the  most 
comprehensive,  perhaps,  is  to  classify  the  different  varieties  of 
the  cotton  plant  as  (i)  the  tree,  (2)  the  shrub,  and  (3)  the  her- 
baceous species.*  -According  to  Parlatore  all  commercial  cotton 

*  The  following  is  a  list  of  species  of  the  cotton  plant  more  or  less  recognized 
by  botanists: 

Gossypium  album  Hamilton,  a  synonym  of  G.  herbaceum;  commercially  known 
as  upland  cotton;  has  a  white  seed. 

G.  arboreum  Linn.,  a  tree-like  plant;    perennial;   indigenous   to  India;  pro- 
duces but  little  fibre. 

G.   barbadense  Linn.,   indigenous  to   America   and   outlying    islands;    gives 
the  highly  prized  sea-island  cotton. 

G.  brasiliense  Macfad.,  a  tropical  species;    belongs  to  the  so-called  "kidney 
cottons";  the  seeds  adhere  to  one  another  in  clusters. 

G.  chinense  Fisch.  &  Otto,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum;  a  Chinese  cotton. 

G.  croceum  Hamilton,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum;  possesses  a  yellow  lin'v. 

G.  eglandulosum  Cav.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  datum  Salisb.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  jructescens  Lasteyr.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

•G.  juscum  Roxb.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

'G,  glabrum  Lam.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

•G.  glandulosum  Steud.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. - 

•G.  herbaceum  Linn.,  usually  considered  of  Asiatic  origin;  synonymous  with 

G.  hirsutum;  ordinary  upland  cotton. 
'G.  hirsutum  Linn.,  of  American  origin;  Georgia  upland  cotton. 

G.  indicum  Lam.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  jamaicense  Macfad.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense;  grows  in  Jamaica. 

G.  javanicum  Blume,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense;  grows  in  Java. 

G.  lati folium  Murr.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  leonivum  Medic.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  macedonicum  Murr.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  maritimum  Tod.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

G   micranthum  Cav.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G-  molle  Mauri,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  nanking  Meyen,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum 

•G.  neglectum  Tod.,  indigenous  to  India;    similar  to  G.  aboreum;  extensively 
grown  in  India;  gives  the  Dacca  and  China  cottons. 

G.  nigrum  Hamilton,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

G.  obtusijolium  Roxb.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  oligospermum  Macfad.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

G.  paniculatum  Blanco,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  perenne  Blanco,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

G.  peruvianum  Cav.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

G.  punclatum  Schum.   &  Thonn.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

G.  racemosum  Poir,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

G.  religiosum  Par.,  a  synonym  for  G.  arboreum;  so  called  because  its  use  is 


174  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

is    derived    from  seven    species    of    the    Gossypium,    which    he 
enumerates  as  follows:  * 
j/(i)  G.   barbadense,^  which  comprises   the    long-stapled   and 

mostly  restricted  to  making  turbans  for  Indian  priests;  also  because  it 
grows  in  the  gardens  of  the  temples;  it  has  the  cultural  name  of  Nurma. 
or  Deo  cotton.  Also  a  variety  of  G.  barbadense. 

G.  roxburghianum  Tod.,  a  variety  of  G.  neglectum;  corresponds  to  the  Dacca, 
cotton  of  India. 

G.  siamense  Tenore,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum 

G.  sinense  Fisch.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  stocksii  Masters,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum;  claimed  to  be  the  original 
of  all  cultivated  forms  of  this  latter  species. 

G.  strictum  Medic.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  tomentosum,  indigenous  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands;  the  bark  is  used  for 
making  twine. 

G.  tricuspidatum  Lam.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  vitijolium  Lam.,  a  synonym  for  G.  barbadense. 

G.  vitijolium  Roxb.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum. 

G.  wightianum  Tod.,  a  synonym  for  G.  herbaceum;  claimed  by  Todaro  to  be 
the  primitive  form  of  the  Indian  cottons. 

*  Filippo  Parlatore,  Le  specie  del  cotoni,  1866. 

t  The  botany  of  this  species  is  given  as  follows:  Shrubby,  perennial,  6  to  8  feet 
high,  but  in  cultivation  herbaceous  and  annual  or  biennial,  3  to  4  feet  high,  gla- 
brous, dotted  with  more  or  less  prominent  black  glands.  Stems  erect,  terete,, 
branching.  Branches  graceful,  spreading,  subpyramidal,  somewhat  angular, 
ascending,  at  length  recurving.  Leaves  alternate,  petiolate,  as  long  as  the  petioles,, 
rotund,  ovate,  subcordate,  3-  to  5-lobed,  sometimes  with  some  of  the  upper  and; 
lower  leaves  entire,  cordate,  ovate,  acuminate;  lobes  ovate,  ovate-lanceolate,, 
acute  or  acuminate,  channelled  above,  sinus  subrotund,  above  green,  lighter  on 
the  veins,  glabrous,  beneath  pale  green  and  glabrous,  3-  to  5-veined,  the  mid- 
vein  and  sometimes  one  or  both  pairs  of  lateral  veins  bearing  a  dark -green  gland 
near  their  bases.  Stipules  erect  or  spreading,  curved,  lanceolate-acuminate, 
entire  or  somewhat  laciniate.  Peduncles  equal  to  or  shorter  than  the  petiole, 
erect,  elongating  after  flowering,  rather  thick,  angled,  sometimes  bearing  a  large- 
oval  gland  below  the  involucre.  Involucre  3-parted,  erect,  segments  spreading. 
at  top.  many  veined,  broadly  cordate-ovate,  exceeding  half  the  length  of  the 
corolla,  9  to  12  divided  at  top,  divisions  la/iceolate-acuminate.  Calyx  much 
shorter  than  the  involucre,  bracts  cup-shaped,  slightly  5 -toothed  or  entire.  Corolla, 
longer  than  the  bracts.  Petals  open,  but  not  widely  expanding  after  flower- 
ing, broadly  obovate,  obtuse,  crenate,  or  undulate  margined,  yellow  or  sulphur 
colored,  with  a  purple  spot  on  the  claw,  all  becoming  purplish  in  age.  Stamen 
about  half  the  length  of  the  corolla,  the  tube  naked  below,  anther  bearing  above. 
Style  equal  to  or  exceeding  the  stamens,  3  to  5  parted.  Ovary  ovate,  acute,  glandu- 
lar, 3-,  rarely  4-  to  5-celled.  Capsule  a  little  longer  than  the  persistent  involucre, 
oval,  acuminate,  green,  shining,  3-,  rarely  4-  to  5-valved.  Valves  oblong  or  ovate- 
oblong,  acuminate,  the  points  widely  spreading.  Seeds  6  to  9  in  each  cell,  obovate. 


COTTON.  175 

silky-fibred  cottons  known  as  Barbadoes,  sea-island,  Egyptian, 
and  Peruvian.  The  plant  reaches  a  height  of  from  6  to  8  feet, 
and  has  yellow  blossoms.  Owing  to  variations  in  the  conditions 
of  its  cultivation,  however,  the  present  sea-island  cotton  has 
changed  considerably  from  the  original  barbadense*  This 
variety  is  employed  for  the  spinning  of  fine  yarns,  such  as  are 
known  hi  trade  as  "Bolton  counts." 

•\2)  G.  herbaceum^  including  most  of.  the  cotton  from  India, 

narrowed  at  base,  black.  Fibre  white,  3  to  4  or  more  times  the  length  of  the 
seed,  silky,  easily  separable  from  the  seed.  Cotyledons  yellowish,  glandular, 
punctate. 

*  The  following  species  are  considered  as  synonyms  of  G.  barbadense:  G.  jruc- 
tescens  Lasteyr.,  G.  juscum  Roxb.,  G.  glabrum  Lam.,  G.  jamaicense  Macfad., 
G.  javanicum  Blume,  G.  maritimum  Todaro,  G.  nigrum  Ham.,  G.  oligospermum 
Macfad  ,  G.  perenne  Blanco,  G.  peruvianum  Cav.,  G.  punctatum  Schum.  &  Thonn, 
G.  racemosum  Poir.,  G.  religiosum  Par.,  and  G.  vittfolium  Roxb. 

t  The  descriptive  botany  of  this  species  is  as  follows:  Shrubby,  perennial, 
but  in  cultivation  herbaceous,  annual  or  biennial.  Pubescence  variable,  part 
being  long,  simple  or  stellate,  horizontal  or  spreading,  sometimes  short,  stellate, 
abundant,  or  the  plants  may  be  hirsute,  silky,  or  all  pubescence  may  be  more 
or  less  wanting,  the  plants  being  glabrous  or  nearly  so.  Glands  more  or  less 
prominent.  Stems  terete,  or  somewhat  angular  above,  branching.  Branches  spread- 
ing or  erect.  Leaves  alternate,  petioled,  the  petioles  about  equalling  the  blades, 
cordate  or  subcordate,  3-  to  5-,  rarely  y-lobed.  Lobes  from  oval  to  ovate,  acu- 
minate, pale  green  above,  lighter  beneath,  more  or  less  hairy  on  the  vein,  3-  to  5- 
o  7-veined,  the  midvein  and  sometimes  the  nearest  lateral  veins  glandular  towards 
the  base  or  glands  wanting.  Sinus  obtuse.  Lower  leaves  sometimes  cordate, 
acuminate,  entire,  or  slightly  lobed.  Stipules  erect  or  spreading,  ovate-lanceo- 
late to  linear -lanceolate,  acuminate,  entire,  or  occasionally  somewhat  dentate. 
Peduncles  erect  in  flower,  becoming  pendulous  in  fruit.  Involucre  3-,  rarely 
4-parted,  shorter  than  the  corolla,  appressed,  spreading  in  fruit,  broadly  cordate, 
incisely  serrate,  the  divisions  lanceolate-acuminate,  entire  or  sometimes  sparingly 
dentate.  Calyx  less  than  half  the  length  of  the  involucre  cup-shaped,  dentate, 
with  short  teeth.  Petals  erect,  spreading  obovate  or  cuneate,  obtuse  or  emar 
ginate,  curled  or  crenulate,  white  or  pale  yellow,  usually  with  a  purple  spot  near 
the  base,  in  age  becoming  reddish.  Stamens  half  the  length  of  the  corolla.  Pis- 
til equal  or  longer  than  the  stamens.  Ovary  rounded  obtuse  or  acute,  glandular, 
3-  to  5-celled.  Style  about  twice  the  length  of  the  ovary,  3-  to  5-parted  above, 
the  glandular  portion  often  marked  with  2  rows  of  glands.  Capsule  erect,  glo- 
bose or  ovate,  obtuse  or  acuminate,  mucronate,  pale  green,  3-  to  5-celled.  Valves 
ovate  to  oblong,  with  spreading  tips.  Seed  5  to  1 1  in  each  cell,  tree,  obovate  to 
subglabrous,  narrowed  at  base,  clothed  with  two  forms  of  fibre,  one  short  and 
dense,  closely  enveloping  the  seed,  the  other  2  to  3  times  the  length  of  the  seed, 
white  silky,  and  separating  with  some  difficulty.  Cotyledons  somewhat  glandular, 
punctate. 


i?6  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

southern  Asia,  China,  and  Italy.*  It  is  an  annual  plant  grov.ing 
from  5  to  6  feet  in  height;  unlike  the  barbadense  variety,  its  seeds 
are  generally  covered  with  a  soft  undergrowth  of  fine  down, 
which  is  an  objectionable  feature.  The  flower  is  yellow  in  color. 
This  species  is  perhaps  the  hardiest  of  the  cottons,  and  is  cultivated 
over  a  wider  range  of  latitude.f  It  forms  the  source  of  nearly  all 
the  Indian  cotton. %  It  is  used  for  the  spinning  of  low-count 

*  Parlatore  claims  that  this  species  originated  in  India,  while  Todaro  says 
that  it  is  spontaneous  in  Asia  and  perhaps  also  in  Egypt,  and  that  G.  wightianum 
is  the  primitive  form  of  the  Indian  cottons;  others  still  consider  it  as  a  native 
of  Africa.  According  to  Bulletin  No.  jj  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.),  it  is  probable  that 
G.  herbaceum  is  not  a  definite  species,  but  has  been  developed  by  cultivation 
from  perhaps  several  wild  species,  and  it  represents  not  a  species  but  a  group  of 
hybrids  and  forms  more  or  less  closely  related. 

t  The  following  species  are  considered  as  synonyms  of  G.  herbaceum :  G.  album 
Ham.,  G.  chinense  Fisch.,  G.  croceum  Ham.,  G.  eglandulosum  Cav.,  G.  datum 
Salis.,  G.  glandulosum  Steud.,  G.  hirsutum  Linn.,  G.  indicum  Lam.,  G.  latijolium 
Murr.,  G.  leoninum  Medic.,  G.  macedonicum  Murr.,  G.  micranthum  Cav.,  G.  molle 
Mauri,  G.  nanking  Meyen,  G.  obtusijolium  Roxb.,  G.  paniculaium  Blanco,  G.  punc- 
tatum  Guil.,  G.  religiosum  Linn.,  G.  siamense  Tenore,  G.  sinense  Fisch.,  G.  stric- 
tum  Medic.,  G.  tricuspidatum  Lam.,  and  G.  vitifolium  Roxb. 

J  Todaro  claims  that  the  species  G.  wightianum  is  the  form  chiefly  cultivated 
in  India.  It  differs  from  the  general  form  of  G.  herbaceum  in  that  the  latter  has 
broader  and  more  rounded  leaves,  and  broader,  thinner,  and  deeper  cut  brac- 
teoles.  The  botany  of  G.  wightianum  is  as  follows:  Stems  erect,  somewhat 
hairy,  branches  spreading  and  ascending.  Leaves,  when  young,  densely  covered 
with  short  thick,  stellate  hairs,  becoming  nearly  glabrate  in  age;  ovate-rotund, 
scarcely  cordate,  3-  to  5-,  rarely  7-lobed;  lobes  ovate,  oblong,  acute,  constricted 
at  base  into  a  rounded  sinus.  Stipules  on  the  peduncles  almost  ovate,  others 
linear-lanceolate,  acuminate.  Flowers  yellow  with  a  deep  purple  spot  at  base, 
becoming  reddish  on  the  outside  in  age.  Bracteoles  small,  slightly  united  at 
base,  ovate,  cordate,  acute,  shortly  toothed.  Peduncles  erect  in  flower,  recurved 
in  fruit,  one-quarter  the  length  of  the  petioles.  Capsule  small,  ovate,  acute, 
4-celled,  with  8  seeds  in  each  cell.  Seeds  small,  ovate,  subrotund,  clothed  with 
two  forms  of  fibre,  the  inner  short  and  closely  adhering,  the  other  longer,  white 
or  reddish. 

There  is  another  very  similar  form  indigenous  to  India  known  as  G.  neglectum, 
it  grows  as  a  large  bush,  and  its  fibre  constitutes  the  majority  of  the  commer- 
cial Bengal  cotton.  Its  botany  is  as  follows:  Stem  erect.  Branches  slender, 
graceful,  spreading.  Leaves,  lower  ones  5  to  7  palmately  lobed,  segments  lanceo- 
late, acute,  rarely  bristle-tipped,  sinus  rounded,  the  small  lobes  in  the  sinuses 
less  distinct  than  in  G.  arboreum,  upper  leaves  3-parted.  Stipules  next  the  ped- 
uncles semiovate,  dentate,  the  others  linear-lanceolate,  acute.  Peduncles,  with 
short  lateral  branches,  2  to  4  flowered.  Involucral  bracts  coalescent  at  base, 
deeply  and  acutely  laciniate.  Petals  less  than  twice  the  length  of  the  involucral 


COTTON.  177 

yams,  also  for  the  making  of  condenser  yarns  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  flannelettes. 

^3)  G.  hirsutum*  including  most  of  the  cotton  from  the 
southern  United  States,  also  known  as  upland  cotton.  The 
plant  is  shrubby  in  appearance,  seldom  reaching  more  than 
7  feet  in  height;  like  the  preceding  variety,  the  seeds  are  also 
covered  with  a  fine  undergrowth  of  down. 

•/(4)  G.  arboreumj  including  the  cotton  from  Ceylon,  Arabia, 


bracts,  obovate,  unequally  cuneate,  yellow,  with  a  deep  purple  spot  at  base. 
Stamen-tube  half  the  length  of  the  corolla,  naked  at  base.  Capsule  small,  ovate, 
acute,  cells  5-  to  8-seeded,  seed  obovate,  small,  clothed  with  two  forms  of  fibre, 
one  very  short,  closely  adherent,  and  of  an  ashy  green  color,  the  other  longer, 
rather  harsh,  white. 

*  Todaro  claims  that  this  species  originated  in  Mexico,  whence  it  has  been 
spread  by  cultivation  throughout  the  warmer  portions  of  the  world;  to  this 
form  he  also  ascribes  the  Georgia  or  long-stapled  upland  cotton.  Parlatore,  on 
the  other  hand,  considers  it  as  indigenous  to  the  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
as  well  as  the  mainland,  and  that  all  green-seeded  cotton,  wherever  cultivated, 
originated  from  this  form. 

t  The  descriptive  botany  of  this  species  is  as  follows:  Shrubby,  perennial,  but 
in  cultivation  sometimes  annual  or  biennial;  tomentose,  with  two  forms  of  hairs, 
one  long  and  simple,  the  other  more  numerous,  shorter,  and  stellate;  glands 
small,  scarcely  prominent,  more  or  less  scattered.  Stem  erect,  terete,  very  branch- 
ing. Branches  spreading,  terete.  Leaves  alternate,  petiolate,  with  petioles  a 
little  shorter  than  the  blade,  subcordate,  5-  to  y-lobed,  lobes  oblong-lanceolate 
or  lanceolate-acuminate,  bristle-tipped,  scarcely  channelled  above;  sinus  obtuse, 
often  with  a  small  lobe  in  some  of  the  sinuses,  beneath  pale  green  and  softly  pubes- 
cent, 5-  to  7-veined,  the  midvein  and  often  the  two  adjacent  ones  with  a  red- 
dish-yellow gland  near  their  base;  upper  leaves  palmately  3-  to  5-lobed,  lobes 
short.  Stipules  erect,  spreading,  lanceolate-acuminate.  Peduncles  axillary, 
erect  before  and  spreading  or  horizontal  after  flowering  and  drooping  in  fruit, 
about  three-fourths  the  length  of  the  petioles,  terete,  destitute  of  glands,  i  to 
2  usually  i -flowered,  jointed  above  the  middle,  bearing  a  small  leaf  and  two 
stipules  at  this  point.  Involucre  three-parted,  appressed  or  scarcely  spreading 
at  summit,  many  nerved,  broadly  and  deeply  cordate,  ovate-acuminate,  5  to  9, 
rarely  3  dentate  or  nearly  entire.  Calyx  much  shorter  than  the  bracts,  subglo- 
bose,  truncate,  crenulate  or  subdentate,  with  a  large  gland  at  the  base  within 
the  involucre.  Corolla  campanulate,  petals  erect  or  spreading,  broadly  cuneate, 
subtruncate,  crisp  or  crenulate,  purple  or  rose-colored,  with  a  large  dark  purple 
spot  at  the  base.  Stamina!  tube  about  half  the  length  of  the  corolla.  Pistils 
equally  or  a  little  longer  than  the  stamens.  Ovary  ovate,  acute,  glandular,  usu- 
ally 3-celled.  Style  a  little  longer  than  the  ovary,  3-parted  without  glands.  Cap- 
sule pendulous,  a  little  longer  than  the  persistent  involucre,  ovate,  rounded, 
glandular,  3-  to  4-celled,  and  valved.  Valves  ovate,  oval,  spreading,  mucronate- 


178  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

etc.  As  the  name  indicates,  it  is  a  tree-like  plant,  and  grows 
from  12  to  1 8  feet  in  height.  The  fibres  are  of  a  greenish  color 
and  very  coarse;  its  flowers  are  of  a  reddish  color.* 

*/(5)  G.  peruvianum,  including  the  native  Peruvian  and  Bra- 
zilian cottons.  This  differs  from  other  varieties  of  cotton  in  that 
it  is  a  perennial  plant;  the  growth  from  the  second  and  third 
years,  only,  however,  is  utilized. 

(6)  G.  tahitense,  found  chiefly  in  Tahiti   and  other  Pacific 
islands. 

(7)  G.  sdndwichense,  occurring  principally  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands. 

This  classification  is  claimed  to  include  all  the  commercial 
varieties  of  cotton;  it  is  probable,  however,  that  the  last  two  can 
be  included  under  the  barbadense  and  hirsutum  varieties,  as 
they  possess  the  same  characteristics  as  these  fibres.f 

Other  authorities  on  the  botany  of  the  cotton  plant  have  rec- 
ognized many  more  species  than  those  above  described.  Agos- 
tino  Todaro  |  has  described  52  varieties,  while  the  Index  Keiven- 
sis  §  records  42  distinct  species  and  refers  to  88  others  which  it 
classifies  as  synonyms.  Hamilton  reduces  the  number  of  species 
to  three,  namely,  the  white-seeded,  black-seeded,  and  yellow- 
linted,  assigning  to  these  species  the  botanical  names  album, 
nigrum,  and  croceum.  The  chief  difficulty  experienced  in  the 
botanical  classification  of  the  cotton  plant  is  the  fact  that  it  hy- 
bridizes §  very  readily  and  has  a  tendency  to  suffer  alteration 

acuminate,  the  mucro  recurved.  Seed  5  to  6,  ovate,  obscurely  angled,  black. 
Fibre  two  forms,  one  white,  long,  overlying  a  dark  green  or  black  down;  not 
readily  separable  from  the  seed. 

*  A  synonym  of  this  species  is  G.  religiosum;  it  appears  to  be  indigenous  to 
India.  The  plant  is  perennial  and  lasts  from  five  to  six  years,  and  though  the 
fibre  is  fine,  silky,  and  of  good  length,  yet  there  is  but  little  of  it  produced. 

t  Dr.  Royle  reduces  the  number  of  species  of  the  cotton  plant  to  the  following 
four: 

(1)  Gossypium  arboreum. 

(2)  "  herbaceum. 

(3)  ' '  barbadense. 

(4)  ' '  hirsutum. 

J  Rel.  sutta  coltura  dei  cotoni  in  Italia,  1877-78,  vol.  2,  pp.  1057  and  1058. 
§  Bulletin  No.  jj  (vide  supra)  makes  the  following  remarks  relative  to  the  sub- 
ject of  the  cross-fertilization  of  cotton.    The  flower  of  the  cotton  plant  is  so  large 


COTTON.  i?9 

in  variety  with  change  in  the  conditions  of  its  cultivation  or 
variation  in  the  character  of  the  soil  or  climate.* 

Besides  the  varieties  of  cotton  above  enumerated,  which  are 
practically  all  which  find  any  important  commercial  application, 
there  is  another  plant  which  yields  a  fibre  somewhat  similar  to 
cotton,  and  known  as  the  silk-cotton  plant.  It  belongs  to  the 
same  natural  order,  Malvacece,  as  the  ordinary  cotton  plant,  but 
is  of  a  different  genus,  being  Salmalia  instead  of  Gossypium.  It 
grows  principally  on  the  African  coast  and  in  some  parts  of. 
tropical  Asia.  The  plant  is  rather  a  large  tree,  reaching  from 
70  to  80  feet  in  height.  The  blossoms  are  red  in  color,  and  the 
seeds  are  covered  with  long  silky  fibres,  which  are  hot  adapted, 
however,  for  spinning. 

Although  fibres  from  the  different  species  of  the  cotton  plant 
all  possess  the  same  general  physical  appearance,  nevertheless, 

and  develops  so  rapidly  that  cross-fertilization  is  easily  secured.  Flowers  which 
are  to  be  fertilized  should  be  among  those  which  are  developed  early  in  the  sea- 
son, and  should  always  be  those  on  healthy  and  vigorous  plants.  The  flowers 
to  be  operated  upon  should  be  selected  late  in  the  afternoon;  one  side  of  the 
unopened  bud  should  be  split  lengthwise  with  a  sharp  knife  having  a  slender 
blade,  and  the  stamens  removed.  The  anthers,  the  fertilizing  parts  of  the  sta- 
mens, will  be  found  well  developed  and  standing  well  away  from  the  pistil,  though 
not  yet  so  matured  as  to  be  discharging  pollen.  These  can  be  readily  separated 
from  their  support  by  a  few  careful  strokes  of  the  knife,  and  the  emasculated 
flower  should  then  be  enclosed  in  a  paper  bag  to  prevent  access  of  pollen  from 
unknown  sources.  The  following  morning  the  pistil  will  be  fully  developed  and 
ready  to  receive  pollen.  A  freshly  opened  flower  from  a  healthy  plant  of  the 
variety  which  it  is  desired  to  use  in  making  the  cross  is  picked  and  carried  to 
the  plant  which  was  treated  the  previous  evening,  the  bag  is  removed  from  the 
prepared  flower,  and  by  means  of  a  camel-hair  brush  pollen  is  dusted  over 
the  end  and  upper  part  of  the  pistil.  The  paper  bag  is  then  replaced  and  allowed 
to  remain  two  days,  after  which  it  should  be  removed. 

*  In  Europe  cottons  are  graded  according  to  their  value  as  follows: 

1.  Long  Georgia. 

2.  Makko. 

3.  Pernambuco. 

4.  Louisiana. 

5.  Cayenne. 

6.  New  Orleans. 

7.  Short  Georgia. 

8.  Surat. 

9.  Bengal. 


l8o  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

there  are  characteristic  features  in  each  worthy  of  careful  obser- 
vation. 

Gossypium  barbadense:  Sea-island.  —  This  constitutes  the 
most  valuable,  perhaps,  of  all  the  different  species.  Its  chief 
points  of  superiority  are  (a)  its  length,  being  more  than  half  an 
inch  longer  than  the  average  of  other  cottons;  (b)  its  fineness  of 
staple;  (c]  its  strength;  (d)  its  number  of  twists,  which  allow 
it  to  be  spun  to  finer  yarns;  (e)  its  appearance,  it  being  quite 
soft  and  silky.  It  is  also  characterized  by  a  light-cream  color. 
Sea-island  cotton  is  mostly  used  for  the  production  of  fine  yarns 
ranging  from  i2o's  to  3oo's;  *  it  is  said  that  as  fine  as  2coo's  has 
been  spun  from  it.f  On  account  of  its  adaptability  for  mercer- 
izing it  is  also  largely  employed  for  this  purpose,  in  which  case 
much  coarser  yarns  are  often  prepared  from  it.  Owing  to  the 
wide  cultivation  of  sea-island  cotton  at  the  present  time,  for  its 
growth  is  no  longer  strictly  confined  to  the  islands  of  the  sea,J 
it  is  difficult  to  make  a  definite  statement  as  to  its  length  of  staple, 
as  this  will  vary  considerably  with  the  method  and  place  of  cul- 

*The  "count"  of  cotton  yarn  means  the  number  of  hanks  of  840  yards  each 
contained  in  i  Ib.  The  size  120*3,  for  instance,  means  cotton  yarn  of  such 
fineness  that  120  hanks  of  840  yards  (=  100,800  yards)  weigh  i  Ib.  The  French 
method  of  numbering  is  based  on  the  decimal  system,  and  the  count  means 
the  number  of  hanks  each  1000  meters  in  length  required  to  weigh  500  grams.  In 
order  to  change  from  French  to  English  count,  multiply  the  former  by  0.847, 
or  $.  The  Belgian  method  of  counting  is  to  use  the  number  of  84O-yard  hanks 
in  500  grams.  The  Austrian  system  is  the  number  of  hanks  of  950  ells  each  con- 
tained in  500  grams.  The  English  system  is  the  one  mostly  used,  being  employed 
in  England,  America,  India,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Switzerland,  and  even  in  parts 
of  Austria.  Doubled  or  twisted  yarns  are  designated  in  the  same  manner  as 
single  yarns,  except  that  the  number  of  threads  is  also  given,  for  instance,  if  two 
single  threads  of  count  20  are  twisted  together,  the  yarn  is  described  as  2-20*3 
or  3*3,  or  ^;  a  three-ply  yarn  would  be  3-20*3,  or  -fa  or  -^,  etc.  According  to 
the  number  of  threads  twisted  together,  yarns  will  lose  from  2.5  to  6  per  cent, 
of  their  length  in  doubling,  and,  of  course,  become  correspondingly  thicker. 
Yarns  containing  more  than  two  single  threads  are  known  as  sewing  twist  or  cord. 

t  See  Monie,  Structure  of  the  Cotton  Fibre,  p.  40,  as  authority  for  this  state- 
ment. A  thread  of  such  fineness  would  not  be  commercial,  and  has  never  been 
prepared,  except,  perhaps,  in  an  experimental  manner. 

J  Some  writers  claim  that  sea-island  cotton  is  peculiarly  of  American  origin; 
that  it  was  found  on  the  island  of  San  Salvador  by  Columbus,  and  by  him  brought 
to  Spain.  Other  writers,  among  whom  is  Masters  (Jour.  Linn.  Soc.,  vol.  igk 
p.  213),  assert  that  this  cotton  is  of  central  African  origin. 


COTTON.  181 

tivation.*  The  maximum  length,  however,  may  be  taken  as  2 
inches,  and  the  minimum  as  if  inches,  with  a  mean  of  i|  inches. 
Florida  sea-island  cotton  is  very  similar  in  general  characteristics  to 
sea-island  proper,  possessing  about  the  same  mean  length  of  staple, 
but  being  somewhat  less  in  the  maximum  length.f  Both  of  these 
varieties  of  sea-island  show  a  maximum  diameter  of  0.0x30714  inch, 
a  minimum  of  0.000625  mch«  and  a  mean  of  0.000635  inch.  Fiji 
sea-island  is  less  regular  in  its  properties  than  the  two  preceding 
varieties,  and  though  its  maximum  length  is  somewhat  greater 
than  sea-island  itself,  yet  the  mean  length  is  about  the  same,  as 
is  also  the  diameter.  This  cotton,  however,  has  a  very  irregular 
staple  and  contains  a  large  percentage  of  imperfect  fibres,  which 
causes  the  waste  to  be  rather  high.  The  number  of  twists  in  the 
fibre  is  also  less  and  does  not  occur  as  regularly.  Gallini  Egyptian 
cotton  is  sea-island  cotton  grown  in  Egypt.J  It  is  somewhat 
inferior  to  the  American  varieties  in  general  properties. §  It  pos- 
sesses a  yellowish  color,  which  distinguishes  it  from  the  product 
of  all  other  countries.||  The  maximum  length  of  the  fibre  is  if 

*  Sea-island  cotton  may  be  cultivated  in  any  region  adapted  to  the  olive  and 
near  the  sea,  the  principal  requisite  being  a  hot  and  humid  atmosphere,  but  the 
results  of  acclimatization  indicate  that  the  humid  atmosphere  is  not  entirely 
necessary  if  irrigation  be  employed,  as  this  species  is  undoubtedly  grown  exten- 
sively in  Egypt.  As  a  rule,  the  quality  of  the  staple  increases  with  the  proximity 
to  the  sea;  but  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as  that  grown  on  Jamaica  and 
some  islands  is  of  rather  low  grade,  while  the  best  fibre  is  produced  along  the 
shores  of  Georgia  and  Carolina,  (Bulletin  No.  33,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

t  Sea-island  cotton  gives  a  smaller  yield  of  lint  than  any  variety  of  cotton 
grown  in  America,  but,  on  account  of  the  greater  length  and  finenesi  of  staple, 
it  has  a  much  higher  market  value. 

\  The  Bamia  variety  of  Egyptian  cotton  is  a  form  of  sea-island  cotton  to  which 
Todaro  has  given  the  varietal  name  of  polycarpum.  It  is  characterized  by  numer- 
ous flowers  springing  from  a  single  axil,  and  an  erect,  slightly  branching  habit, 
hence  giving  a  large  yield  per  acre.  It  was  once  thought  that  the  Bamia  cotton 
was  a  hybrid  between  okra  and  cotton,  but  in  a  Kew  Report  (1887,  p.  26)  this 
is  shown  to  be  incorrect. 

§  Gallini  cottons  have  the  bad  feature  of  containing  considerable  undeveloped 
and  short  fibre,  and  this  somewhat  lessens  its  commercial  value.  Peruvian  sea- 
island  also  possesses  this  same  defect,  but,  in  addition,  contains  usually  quite  a 
large  amount  of  foreign  matter,  such  as  broken  leaf,  sand,  seed  particles,  etc. 

||  The  fibre  of  Egyptian  cotton  is  especially  adapted  to  the  manufacture  of 
hosiery  yarns  and  yarns  for  mercerizing.  The  United  States  imports  Egyptian 
cotton  to  the  value  of  about  $10,000,000  per  year. 


1 82  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES, 

inches,  the  minimum  i\  inches,  and  the  mean  i£  inches.  The 
fibres  differ  very  little  in  their  diameter,  the  average  being 
0.000675  inch.  Peruvian  sea-island  is  somewhat  coarser  in 
structure  than  the  sea-island  proper,  being  more  hairy  in  ap- 
pearance; it  has  a  slight  golden  tint.  In  staple  it  varies  from 
if  inches  in  length  to  if  inches,  with  a  mean  of  ij  inches. 
Tahiti  sea-island  resembles  the  Fiji  variety  very  closely;  it  has 
a  creamy  color.  The  length  of  staple  varies  from  i  \  to  i  J  inches, 
with  a  mean  of  i  J  inches.  It  shows  a  considerable  percentage  of 
imperfect  fibres  due  to  a  short  undergrowth  on  the  seed.  Its 
average  diameter  is  0.000641  inch. 

Gossypium  herbaceum.* — Smyrna  cotton  is  grown  principally 
in  Asiatic  Turkey.  It  has  a  rather  characteristic  appearance 
under  the  microscope,  being  very  even  in  its  diameter  but  irregu- 
lar in  its  twist,  showing  many  fibres  where  the  twist  is  almost 
entirely  absent.  In  length  the  staple  varies  from  $  to  ij  inches, 
with  a  mean  of  i  inch;  the  mean  diameter  is  about  0.00077  mcn- 
Brown  Egyptian  cotton  is  supposed  to  be  indigenous  to  that 
country,  f  It  is  characterized  by  a  fine  golden  color,  and  great 


*  The  cultivated  cottons  of  to-day  are  far  different  from  the  original  form 
of  the  G.  herbaceum,  which  gave  only  28  to  29  per  cent,  of  fibre,  with  a  staple 
20  to  30  mm.  long.  The  proportion  of  fibre  has  been  greatly  increased,  reach- 
ing as  high  as  36  and  even  40  per  cent,  in  some  varieties,  while  the  length  of  staple 
has  increased  correspondingly,  sometimes  reaching  fully  three  times  its  original 
length. 

f  The  first  variety  of  cotton  to  be  cultivated  in  Egypt  was  called  Makko-Jumel; 
this  went  through  many  changes  and  evolutions,  and  gradually  changed  its  color 
to  a  yellowish  brown,  the  new  variety  being  known  as  Ashmouni,  from  the  valley 
of  Ashmoun,  where  the  change  was  first  noticed.  The  principal  varieties  of 
Egyptian  cotton  now  grown  are  the  Ashmouni,  Mitafifi,  Bamia,  Abbasi,  and 
Gallini.  Formerly  the  Ashmouni  formed  the  bulk  of  the  Egyptian  crop,  but 
it  is  now  almost  entirely  superseded  by  the  Mitafifi.  In  color  it  is  a  light  brown, 
and  its  staple  is  over  an  inch  in  length.  The  Mitafifi  cotton  is  said  to  have  been 
discovered  by  a  Greek  merchant  in  a  village  of  that  name;  it  is  characterized 
by  the  seed  having  a  bluish-green  tuft  at  the  extremity.  Its  color  is  a  richer 
and  darker  brown  than  the  Ashmouni;  the  fibre  is  long,  strong,  and  fine,  and 
very  desirable  in  the  market.  The  Bamia  cotton  is  the  next  most  extensively 
cultivated;  the  fibre  is  poor  compared  with  the  foregoing,  being  light  brown  in  color 
and  not  very  strong.  The  Abbasi  cotton  is  of  rather  recent  introduction;  in  its 
general  properties  it  resembles  Mitafifi,  but  has  not  the  same  strength.  The 
Gallini  cotton  was  derived  from  sea-island,  but  it  has  almost  entirely  disappeared 


COTTON.  183 

toughness  and  tensile  strength.  It  is,  however,  shorter  and 
coarser  than  the  Gallini  cotton.  In  length  of  staple  it  varies  from 
1 1  to  ij  inches,  with  a  mean  of  ij  inches;  the  mean  diameter 
is  0.000738  inch.  African  cottons  are  all  derived  from  the  her- 
baceum  species.  These  cottons  have  a  slight  brownish  tint, 
and  always  contain  a  large  amount  of  short  fibres.  The  fibres 
also  vary  much  in  diameter  and  thickness  of  the  tube- walls,  and 
many  exhibit  a  transparent  appearance  under  the  microscope. 
Yarns  made  from  these  cottons  are  always  uneven  on  the  surface. 
The  length  of  staple  varies  from  f  to  i  J  inches,  with  an  average  of 
i  inch;  the  mean  diameter  is  0.00082  inch.  Hingunghat  cot- 
tons are  Indian  varieties;  the  quality  of  these  varies  with  the  soil 
and  climate  of  the  province  in  which  they  are  grown.  As  a  rule, 
they  are  of  rather  inferior  grade;  the  best  variety  is  the  Surat 
cotton.  Under  the  microscope  the  Hingunghat  cotton  shows 
much  variation  in  diameter,  although  it  possesses  fewer  twists 
than  the  better  grades  of  cotton,  yet,  unlike  the  African  varieties, 
it  shows  very  few  fibres  without  any  convolutions  at  all.  In 
length  of  staple  it  varies  from  f  to  i|  inches,  with  a  mean  of  i 
inch;  the  average  diameter  is  0.00084  inch.  Broach,  Tinnevelly, 
Dharwar,  Oomrawuttee,  Dlwllerah,  Western  Madras,  Comptah, 
Bengal,  and  Scmde  are  other  varieties  of  Indian  cotton,  all  be- 
longing to  the  herbaceum  species.  They  have  the  same  general 
properties  and  staple  as  the  preceding,  becoming  more  and  more 
inferior,  however,  in  the  order  of  the  list  given. 

Gossypium  hirsutum.  —  White  Egyptian,  unlike  the  brown 
variety  described  above,  is  not  indigenous,  but  was  transplanted 
from  America.  In  length  of  staple  it  varies  from  ij  to  if  inches, 
with  a  mean  of  i^  inches;  the  diameter  averages  0.00077  inch. 
This  cotton  shows  a  large  number  of  fibres  having  but  partially 
developed  spiral  t wists.  Orleans  cotton  is  the  typical  American 
variety,  and  is  perhaps  the  best  of  the  American  cottons.*  The 

from  cultivation,  as  its  quality  has  greatly  deteriorated.  Egyptian  cotton,  as  a 
class,  is  not  so  fine  as  sea-island,  but  is  better  than  American  upland  cotton, 
that  is,  for  goods  requiring  a  smooth  finish  and  a  high  lustre,  the  staple  being 
strong  and  silky. 

*  In  the  United  Slates  only  the  herbaceous  cottons  are  cultivated  to  any  extent; 
the  shrubby  and  arboreous  are  occasionally  grown  as  curiosities,  but  they  sel- 


1 84  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

fibres  are  quite  uniform  in  length,  having  an  average  staple  of 
about  i  inch  and  a  mean  diameter  of  0.00076  inch.  It  is  almost 
pure  white  in  color.  Texas  cotton  much  resembles  the  fore- 
going, but  has  a  slight  golden  color;  its  length  and  diameter  of 
staple  are  the  same.  Upland  cotton  *  is  another  very  similar 
variety;  its  length  of  staple,  however,  is  somewhat  less  than  the 
foregoing,  averaging  but  If  inch.  Its  twist  is  rather  inferior  to  the 
Orleans,  and  it  shows  a  larger  number  of  straight  fibres.  Mobile 
cotton  is  the  most  inferior  of  the  American  varieties;  it  varies  in 
length  of  staple  from  f  to  i  inch,  with  a  mean  of  f  inch;  its  aver- 
age diameter  is  0.00076  inch.  It  shows  about  the  same  micro- 
scopic appearance  as  upland  cotton.  Santos  cotton  comes  from 
Brazil;  it  is  not  much  in  demand  on  account  of  its  inferior  quality,  f 
Gossypium  peruvianum. — Rough  Peruvian;  this  cotton  has  a 
light  creamy  color  and  is  rather  harsh  and  hairy  in  feel.J  In 
length  of  staple  it  varies  from  i|  to  i^  inches,  with  a  mean  of  i| 
inches ;  its  mean  diameter  is  about  0.00078  inch.  Most  of  the  fibres 

dom  or  never  produce  any  lint  in  regions  having  as  low  a  mean  temperature  as 
the  American  cotton  belt.  (Bulletin  No.  jj,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

*  There  are  more  than  a  hundred  recognized  horticultural  varieties  of  upland 
cotton  in  cultivation,  all  belonging  to  one  botanical  species  G.  hirsutum,  native 
to  the  American  tropics.  The  original  wild  plants  in  the  tropical  zone  were 
perennials,  but  the  plant  is  cultivated  as  an  annual.  (Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agric.,  1903.) 

t  The  variety  known  as  G.  braziliense  is  a  representative  of  the  so-called 
"kidney  cottons."  In  these  cottons  the  seeds  of  each  cell  are  closely  adherent 
in  an  oval  mass,  whereas  in  the  other  varieties  of  cotton  the  seeds  are  free  from 
each  other.  G.  braziliense  is  an  arborescent  plant  with  very  large  5  to  7  divari- 
cate-lobed  leaves  and  very  deeply  laciniate  involucral  bracts.  The  Brazilian 
cottons  appearing  in  trade  under  the  names  Santos,  Ceara,  Pernambuco,  etc., 
do  not  seem  to  belong  to  G.  braziliense,  as  they  are  not  kidney  cottons;  they  evi- 
dently belong  to  the  G.  barbadense  and  G.  herbaceum  species. 

%  Peruvian  cotton  is  often  called  kidney  cotton,  being  characterized  by  the 
seeds  in  each  lobe  of  the  capsule  clinging  together  in  a  compact  cluster.  These 
seeds  are  black  and  without  a  persistent  fuzzy  covering.  The  lint  shows  a  wide 
variation  in  color  and  texture — white,  brown,  reddish,  rough  and  harsh,  or  smooth 
and  soft.  Most  of  it  has  a  shorter,  coarser,  and  more  wiry  fibre  than  that  of 
American  upland.  The  lint  of  some  varieties  is  much  like  wool  in  appearance 
It  is  imported  chiefly  for  mixing  with  wool  or  for  producing  special  effects.  Kid- 
ney cotton  is  found  in  Central  America  and  also  in  the  Philippines  and  other 
tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific,  but  it  is  not  cultivated  in  commercial  quantities 
outside  of  South  America.  (Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 


COTTON.  185 

are  only  partially  twisted.  Smooth  Peruvian  has  a  soft,  smooth  feel, 
but  the  staple  is  not  so  strong  as  the  preceding.  The  length  is 
about  the  same  as  the  foregoing,  as  is  also  the  diameter.  Per- 
nambuco  has  a  slight  golden  color  and  feels  harsh  and  wiry.  It 
is  a  variety  of  Brazilian  cotton.  It  is  rather  regular  in  length  of 
staple,  the  mean  being  i  J  inches.  The  diameter  averages  0.00079 
inch.  Under  the  microscope  the  twists  appear  regular  and  well 
defined.  Maranhams  cotton  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding  in 
microscopic  appearance  and  length  and  diameter  of  staple. 
Ceara  is  a  Brazilian  cotton,  rather  inferior  to  the  others  by  reason 
of  its  considerable  variation  in  length  of  staple.  Maceo  is  a 
similar  variety,  but  somewhat  harsher.  West  Indian  cottons 
nearly  all  belong  to  the  peruvianum  species;  they  are  usually 
long  in  staple  and  harsh  and  wiry  in  feel,  and  only  of  moderate 
strength.  The  length  is  quite  uniform  and  averages  i£  inches. 
The  diameter  varies  considerably,  but  has  an  average  of  about 
0.00077  mcn-  The  twist  is  short  and  very  uniform,  surpassing 
even  sea-island  in  this  respect. 

Chinese  cotton,  also  known  as  Nankin  cotton,  is  classified 
as  G.  religiosum;  it  yields  a  naturally  colored  fibre,  being  rather 
dark  yellowish  brown.  It  grows  principally  in  China  and  Siam. 


CHAPTER  X. 

THE  PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON. 

i.  Physical  Structure. — Physically  the  individual  cotton  fibre 
consists  of  a  single  long  cell,  with  one  end  attached  directly  to  the 
surface  of  the  seed.  While  growing  the  fibre  is  round  and  cylin- 
drical, having  a  central  canal  running  through  it;  but,  after  the 
enclosing  pod  has  burst,  the  cells  collapse  and  form  a  flat  ribbDn- 
like  fibre,  which  shows  somewhat  thickened  edges  under  the 
microscope.  The  juices  in  the  inner  tube,  on  the  ripening  of  the 
fibre,  are  drawn  back  into  the  plant,  or  dry  up  on  exposure  to 
light  and  air,  and  in  so  doing  cause  the  fibre  to  become  twisted 
into  the  form  of  an  irregular  spiral  or  screw-like  band,  by  reason 
of  the  unequal  collapse  and  contraction  of  the  cell- wall.*  Fibres 
that  have  not  ripened  differ  somewhat  in  these  characteristics, 
being  straight  and  having  the  inner  canal  stopped-up,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  they  do  not  spin  well  and  are  difficult  to  dye, 
showing  up  as  white  specks  in  the  finished  goods;  this  is  known 
as  dead  cotton.^  The  presence  of  an  inner  canal  hi  the  cotton 
fibre  no  doubt  adds  to  its  absorptive  power  for  liquids,  and  its 
capillary  action  allows  cotton  to  retain  salts,  dyestuffs,  etc.,  with 
considerable  power;  but  too  much  importance  in  this  respect 
must  not  be  attributed  to  the  canal,  for  when  cotton  is  mercerized 
the  canal  is  almost  entirely  obliterated  by  the  walls  being  squeezed 

*  The  number  of  twists  in  the  cotton  fibre  in  the  raw  state  is  said  to  be  from 
300  to  500  per  inch. 

f  The  presence  of  "dead  cotton"  is  very  objectionable,  as  the  fibre  is  weak 
and  brittle,  and  consequently  reduces  the  strength  and  durability  of  the  yarn 
into  which  it  may  go.  There  is  a  considerable  amount  of  unripe  or  partly  ripened 
bolls  always  to  be  found  in  cotton-fields,  and  the  fibres  from  these  consist  almost 
exclusively  of  "dead  cotton."  The  proper  utilization  of  such  cotton  is  a  serious 
question,  for  the  fibre  is  too  weak  to  be  used  for  spinning,  and  the  cost  of  gather- 
ing and  ginning  makes  the  fibre  too  expensive  for  most  other  purposes,  such  as 
for  absorbent  cotton,  cotton  batting,  or  material  for  guncotton. 

1 86 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON.      187 


together  (see  Fig.  54),  and  yet  mercerized  cotton  is  much  more 
absorptive  of  dyes,  etc.,  than  ordinary  cotton.     The  capillarity 


<£> 


FIG.  54.  —  Cross-sections  of  Mercerized  Cotton  Fibres,  showing  the  Appearance 
of  the  Inner  Canal. 

of  the  cotton  fibre  is  no  doubt  principally  due  to  the  existence  of 
minute  pores  which  run  from  the  surface  inward.  The  crystal- 
lization of  salts  in  these  pores  and  in  the  central  canal  may  lead 
to  the  rupturing  of  the  fibre,  as,  for  instance,  when  filter-paper 
is  made  by  disintegrating  cotton  fibres  by  saturating  them  with 
water  and  then  freezing  them. 

The  following  table  of  the  length  and  diameter  of  different 


Name  of  Cotton. 

Length 
in  mm. 

Diameter 
in/,. 

Name  of  Cotton. 

Length 
in  mm. 

Diameter 
in/.. 

Sea-island  
Edisto  
Wodomalam  
John  Isle  

41.9 
46.6 

39-Q 
39-3 

9-65 
16  18 

West  Indian  
American  
Orleans  
Upland  
Texas  .  . 

32.3 

27.0 
29-5 

19.6 
20.9 
19.2 
19.4 
16  6 

48    7 

16  7 

Mobile  .  . 

Tahiti 

16  3 

Peruvian  

38.9 

if  .  3 

Mississippi  

24.  2 

2     4 

Egyptian  
Gallini  

32.1 

37-2 

24.   4 

.6.7 

I'1, 

Louisiana  
Tennessee  

25.0 
25  -\ 

27    6 

15-° 

20    8 

White 

71      8 

Smyrna  

28.5 

2:1 

8  8 

Hingunghat  
Dhollerah 

28.3 
28    2 

20.0 

Maranham  
Pernambuco  
Surinam  
Paraiba  
Ceara  

28.8 

35-2 
30.2 
29.7 
28.1 

20.4 

20.0 
20.0 

Broach  
Tinnevelly  
Dharwar  
Oomrawuttee.  .  . 
Comptah  
Madras  .  . 

20-9 
23.0 
23.6 
24.1 
23-8 
21    8 

21    8 
21    O 
21    0 

21  5 

21-  S 
21    8 

Peruvian  rough  

29.9 

2I-5 

Scinde  
Bengal 

20.4 
2C    7 

21.3 

237 

Agerian  

37  -5 

Chinese  

21  .4 

24.  1 

1 88 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


varieties  of  cotton  fibres  has  been  collated  as  a  mean  of  several 
observers. 

The  cotton  fibre  is  rather  even  in  its  diameter  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  length,  though  it  gradually  tapers  to  a  point  at  its  out- 
growing end.  The  different  varieties  of  cotton  show  consider- 
able variation,  both  in  length  and  diameter  of  fibre;  in  sea-island 
cotton  the  length  is  nearly  2  inches,  while  in  Indian  varieties  it  is 
often  less  than  i  inch.*  The  diameter  varies  from  0.00046  to  o.ooi 
inch;  the  longest  fibres  having  the  least  diameter. 

Evan  Leigh  (Science  of  Modern  Cotton  Spinning}  gives  the 
following  summary  of  the  length  and  diameter  of  cotton  fibres: 


Place  of  Growth. 

Kind  of  Cotton. 

Length  in  Inches. 

Diameter  in  Inches. 

Min. 

Max! 

Mean. 

Min. 

Max. 

Mean. 

United  States.  . 
Sea-islands.  .  .  . 
South  America. 

Egypt  

India  •{ 

I 

New  Orleans.  .  . 
Long  stapled.  .  . 
Brazilian  

0.88 
1.41 
1.03 
1.30 
o-77 
°-95 
1.36 

.16 

.80 
•3i 

•52 

.02 
.21 
•65 

.02 

.61 

•17 
.41 
.89 

.08 
•5° 

.000580 
.000460 
.  000620 
.  000590 
.  000649 
.000654 
.  000506 

.000970 
000820 
.000960 
.000720 
.  000040 
.000996 
.  000864 

.000775 
.000640 
.  000790 
.000655 
.  000844 
.  000825 
000730 

~l°-  r 
Native  

American  seed. 
Sea-island  seed  . 

*  Bulletin  No.  33  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.)  gives  the  following  table  compiled 
from  numerous  measurements  taken  during  a  period  of  years,  showing  the  maxi- 
mum, minimum,  and  average  length  of  fibre  for  some  of  the  most  important 
varieties  of  cotton,  as  well  as  the  average  diameter  of  the  same: 


Variety. 

Length  in  Inches. 

Diameter, 
Inches. 

Max. 

Min. 

Aver. 

Sea-island  

.80 
.16 

.12 
.06 
•52 

•31 

.02 
.21 
•65 

1.41 
0.88 
0.87 
0.81 
1.30 
1.03 

0.97 

o-95 
1.36 

1.61 

1.02 
I.  00 

o-93 
1.41 
1.17 

0.89 
i.  08 
i-S0 

.000640 
.000775 
.000763 
.000763 
.000655 
.  000790 

.000844 
.  000825 
.  000730 

New  Orleans  
Texas     

Upland            

Indian  varieties: 
Native 

American  seed  
Sea-island  seed  

From  these  measurements  it  will  be  observed  that,  as  a  rule,  the  longer  the 
fibre  the  less  is  its  diameter.  The  extreme  variations  in  the  above  measurements 
of  length  is  from  0.25  to  0.30  inch.  In  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  fibre,  the 
variation  in  diameter  is  much  greater  than  that  for  the  length. 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON.     189 


Harm  an    gives  the  following  varieties  and  qualities  of  cotton 
to  be  met  with  in  commerce. 


Types. 

Variety. 

L'gth. 
Ins. 

Diam- 
eter, 
Ins. 

Counts. 

Use. 

Properties. 

Sea-island.  . 

Edisto  

2.2C 

.  00063 

300-400 

Warp 

Long,     fine     silky, 

or  weft 

and     of    uniform 

diameter 

Florida  

1.85 

.00063 

150-300 

do. 

Shorter,  but  similar 

to  above 

Fiii 

I    7C 

OOO6  ^ 

I  OO—  2  s  O 

do. 

Less     uniform      in 

1  •  /  J 

length,    but    silky 

and  cohesive 

Tahiti  

i.  80 

.00063 

" 

do. 

Good,     fine,     and 

glossy  staple 

Egyptian.  .  . 

Brown  

l-5° 

.00070 

i  20—  down 

do. 

Long,  strong,  high- 

ly endochromatic 

Gallini  

i.  60 

.00066 

250-down 

Warp 

High-class  staple  of 

good  strength 

Menouffieh.  . 

l-5° 

" 

200-down 

Weft 

Of  good  staple  and 

lustre 

Mitafifi.  .  .  . 

1-25 

" 

100 

Warp 

Fairly  good  staple 

or  weft 

White  

1.  00 

.00078 

70 

do. 

Pearly  white,   good 

long  staple 

Peruvian.  .  . 

Rough  

I-25 

.  00078 

50-70 

Warp 

Strong,  woolly,  and 

harsh  staple 

Smooth  

I.  00 

'• 

" 

Weft 

Less     woolly,     and 

softer  staple 

Red  

J-25 

" 

40-50 

Warp 

Color    weaker    and 

harsher  than 

brown  Egyptian 

Brazilian.  .  . 

Pernambuco. 

^S0 

.00079 

50-70 

Warp 

Strong     and     wiry 

Maranham.  . 

I-IS 

so-60 

do. 

Harsh  and  wiry 

Ceara  

I-I5 

" 

60 

Weft 

Good,    white,    and 

cohesive  staple 

Paraiba  

1.20 

" 

50-60 

Warp 

Fairly  strong,  harsh, 

or  weft 

of  good  color 

Rio  Grande. 

1-15 

" 

40-50 

Weft 

Soft,    white,    and 

Maceio  

1.20 

.00084 

40-60 

Warp 

harsh  staple 
Soft,    pliable,    and 

or  weft 

good  for  hosiery 

Santos  

1.30 

" 

50-60 

Weft 

Exotic  from  Ameri- 

can    seed,     white 

and  silky  staple 

Bahia  

40-50 

Warp 

Fairly    strong,    but 

or  weft 

harsh  and  wiry 

American.  .  . 

Orleans  

I.  I 

.00077 

34-46 

do. 

Medium    length, 

pearly,  white 

Texas  

f~*t 

" 

32-40 

do. 

Similar    to     above, 

rather  harsher  and 

more  glossy 

Allanseed  .  .  . 

1.20 

" 

50-60 

Warp 

Good,  white,   long; 

blends  with  brown 

Egyptian 

Mobile  

I.  00 

.  00076 

40-50 

Warp 

Even-running     sta- 

or weft 

ple,  soft  and  cohe- 

sive 

190 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Types. 

Variety. 

L'gth, 
Ins. 

Diam- 
eter, 
Ins. 

Counts. 

Use. 

Properties. 

American.  .  . 

Norfolks.  .  .  . 

I.  00 

00076 

40-50 

Weft 

Used    for    Oldham 

counts  of  50*3 

St.  Louis  

0.90 

" 

30-32 

Warp 

Staple  irregular, 

glossy,  but  short 

Ronoaks.  .  .  . 

0.90 

" 

30-34 

do. 

A  white  and  strong 

staple 

Boweds  

36 

Weft 

Similar  to  uplands 

Benders.  .  .  . 

I.  1C 

.00077 

60 

Warp 

Strong,    creamy    or 

white,  for  Turkey- 

red  dyes 

Memphis.  .  . 

i  .00 

" 

40-50 

do. 

Bluish  white,  for  ex- 

tra hard  twists 

Peelers  

I-25 

" 

60-80 

Weft 

Long,      silky,     fine 

staple;  adapted  for 

velvets,  etc. 

Uplands.  .  .  . 

I.  00 

" 

36-40 

do. 

Glossy  when  clean, 

apt    to    be    dull, 

sandy,  and  leafy 

Alabama.  .  .  . 

0.90 

" 

26-30 

Warp 

Short  staple,  of  less 

or  weft 

strength,     varying 

color 

Linters  

8-10 

Weft 

Short  -  stapled    gin 

waste 

Tennessee.  . 

0.90 

M 

28 

Warp 

Of    varying    length 

or  weft 

and  color 

Creek  

Smyrna  

x-25 



36-40 

Warp 

Harsh    and    strong, 

adapted  for  double 

yarns 

African.  .  .  . 

Lagos  

0.80 

20-26 

Weft 

Dv.ll  and  oil-stained, 

irregular  in  length 

and  strength 

West  Indian 

Carthagena. 

x-50 

26 

Warp 

From  exotic  seeds; 

fairly  strong 

La  Guayran 

I.2C 



40 

Warp 

Irregular  and  short, 

or  weft 

but  silky  staple 

China 

China  

I  .  OC 

?O 

Weft 

Harsh     short     and 

o 

white 

Australian.  . 

Queensland. 

17-5 

.00066 

120-200 

Warp 

Long,   white,   silky, 

or  weft 

fine  diameter 

East  Indian 

Oomrawuttee 

I  .OC 

.  00083 

26-32 

Warp 

Short,    strong,    and 

white 

Hingunghat  . 

I.OC 

i« 

28-36 

Weft 

Best    white    Indian 

staple 

Comptah 

I    Os 

Warp 

Generallv  dull  and 

or  weft 

charged  with  leaf 

Broach.  .    .  . 

0.90 



28-36 

Weft 

Like      Hingunghat, 

gives    good    white 

weft 

Dhanvar.  .  . 

I.  00 

28 

Warp 

Exotic  from  Ameri- 

can seeds 

Assam  

0.50 

15-20 

Warp 

White,    but    harsh, 

to      blend      with 

other  cottons 

PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON.     191 


Types. 

Variety. 

Lifsh< 

Diam- 
eter, 
Ins. 

Counts. 

Use. 

Properties. 

East  Indian 

Bengals  

0.80 

20-30 

Warp 

Dull  and  generally 

or  weft 

charged  with  leaf 

Bilatu  

0.50 

10-20 

do. 

Weak,   brittle,   and 

coarse 

Dhollerah.  .  . 

0.70 

15-20 

do. 

Strong,  dull,  and  co- 

hesive 

Surat 

o  60 

TO—  I  < 

do. 

Dull  and  leafv  often 

*w    X0 

stained 

Scinde  

0.50 



to  10 

do. 

Very    strong,    dull, 

short,     and    poor 

staple 

Tinnevelly.  . 

0.80 

24-30 

do. 

Lustrous  white,  soft. 

and    adapted    for 

hosiery 

Bhownucrgar 

I  .  OO 

28—30 

Warp 

\Vhite  when  clean* 

often     leafy     and 

dirty 

Cocoanada. 

0.70 

10-14 

Brown 

Brown     and     dull; 

weft 

used     as      quasi- 

Egyptian 

Bourbon.  .  .  . 

I.OC 

3° 

Weft 

Exotic;  of  good  sta- 

ple; scarce 

Khandeish  .  . 

o.8c 

.00083 

20-26 

Warp 

Similar  in  class  to 

or  weft 

Bengal 

Madras     or 

o.7c 

15-20 

do. 

Used  for  low  yarns 

Westerns.  . 

in  coarse  towelling,, 

etc. 

Rangoon.  .  .  . 

o.6c 

to  10 

Warp 

Weak,    dull,    often 

or  weft 

stained  and  leafy 

Kurrachee.  . 

o.9c 

28 

do. 

Fairly  strong,  dull, 

and  leafy 

Italian  

Calabria.  .  .  . 

o.9c 

26-28 

do. 

Fairlv  strong,  irreg- 
ular and  dull,  leafy 

Turkey  

Levant  

1.25 

.00077 

36-40 

Warp 

Harsh,  strong,  and 

white 

Monie  (The  Cotton  Fibre]  gives  the  following  tables  descriptive 
of  the  principal  commercial  varieties  of  cotton.*  As  the  de- 
scriptions given  in  these  tables  vary,  in  some  respects,  quite  con- 
siderably from  the  preceding  tables  of  Hannan,  it  is  probably 
best  that  both  should  be  given: 

*  Monie  remarks  in  connection  with  this  table  that  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  Fiji  and  Tahiti  sea-island  cottons  are  the  most  irregular  in  the  length  of 
their  fibres,  the  extreme  variation  in  both  being  half  an  inch.  As  long  and  short 
cotton  never  incorporate  well  together  nor  adapt  themselves  to  the  production 
of  a  regular  yarn  in  appearance  and  strength,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  they 
are  relatively  wasteful  cottons  to  work.  In  any  spinning  mill  where  they  are 
used,  it  will  be  found  that  the  quantity  of  "fly,"  "combings,"  and  "flat  waste" 
made  at  the  various  machines  is  very  great,  and  the  reason  of  this  is  that  in  any 
cotton  where  the  fibres  are  of  different  lengths,  the  long  and  strong  will  have  a 
tendency  to  throw  out  the  short  and  weak.  The  cotton  which  presents  the  great- 
est regularity  is  the  Orleans.  In  comparing  the  diameters  of  various  cottons 
with  their  lengths,  it  will  be  found  that  the  longest  cottons  are  usually  the  finest. 


192 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


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Length  and  small  diameter;  silki 
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4 

4 
4 

Similar  to  preceding,  but  weaker  an 
ing  larger  percentage  of  unripe 

Of  a  light  golden  color,  very  strong 
easier  to  work  into  yarn  than  sea 

Not  so  fine  or  silky  as  sea-island 
a  light  golden  tint;  fibre  moderat 
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PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON.     193 


s? 

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moist  and  of  fair  strength 

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TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


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Characteristics. 

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acteristics  similar  to  BroE 

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weak 

Exceedingly  dirty  and  wast 
deeper  tint  than  Oomra\ 
strong 

Contains  much  leaf,  etc., 
particles;  of  a  brown  tint 
weak 

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PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON. 


Hohnel  gives  the  following  table  for  the  thickness  of  different 
varieties  of  cotton : 

mm. 

North  American:  ~^T0 

Sea-island 14 

Louisiana  and  Alabama 17 

Florida 18 

Upland  and  -Tennessee 19 

Southern  and  Central  American I5~2i 

Average 19 

East  Indian: 

Dollerah  and  Bengal 20 

Madras 28 

Chinese: 

Nankin 25-40 

Egyptian: 

Makko 15 

Levianthan 24 

European: 

Spanish 17 

Italian...  19 


According  to  Wiesner,  the  thickest  part  of  the  cotton  fibre  is 
not  directly  at  the  base,  but  more  or  less  towards  the  middle. 
He  gives  the  following  measurements  of  thickness  at  different 
parts  of  the  fibre: 


G.  arbor  eum, 

G.  acuminatum, 

G.  herbaceum. 

Position. 

25  mm.  long. 

28  mm.  long. 

25  mm.  long. 

mm. 

•mm. 

mm. 

JOOO 

JOOO 

1000 

Point 

0 

0 

0 

i 

8.4 

4-2 

4-2 

2 

21 

21.6 

5.8 

3 

29 

16.8 

IO.O 

4 

25 

29.4 

16.8 

5 

29 

17.0 

21.0 

6 

25 

21  .  I 

16.9 

7 

21 

21.  I 

21.0 

Base 

J7 

21.0 

16.8 

Mean 

*9*5 

16.9 

12.5 

The  length  of  the  cotton  fibres  attached  to  a  single  seed  is  by 
no  means  constant.  The  longest  fibres  usually  appear  at  the 
crown  of  the  seed,  while  the  shortest  occur  at  the  base.  There 
is  also  frequently  an  undergrowth  of  very  short  fuzzy  fibres.  In 


196 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES 


ginning  the  very  short  fibres  are  ordinarily  not  removed  from 
the  seed,  but  more  or  less  always  appear  with  the  ginned  cot- 
ton. These  short  fibres  are  termed  "neps,"  and  their  presence 
in  any  considerable  amount  materially  affects  the  commercial 
value  of  the  cotton.  This  short  undergrowth  of  neps  appears  to 
be  made  up  of  incompletely  developed  or  immature  fibres,  though 
neps  may  also  arise  through  excessive  breaking  of  fibres  by  im- 
perfect manipulation  in  the  carding  and  spinning  processes. 

Bowman  (Structure  of  the  Cotton  Fibre)  gives  the  following 
table  showing  the  extreme  variation  in  the  length  and  diameter 
of  different  kinds  of  cotton: 


Cotton. 

Variation  in 
Length. 

Variation  in 
Diameter. 

American  (Orleans)  
Sea-island  

0.28  in. 

0-39    " 
o  28    " 

0.000390  in. 
0.000360    " 

Egyptian  

O.  22      " 

o  .  ooo  i  30    " 

Indian  (Surat)  

0.25      " 

o  .  00039  1    '  ' 

According  to  the  measurements  of  Wiesner,  the  average  width 
(diameter  of  the  broadside)  of  the  various  kinds  of  cotton  are  as 
follows: 


Gossypium  herbaceum 18.9  ft 

barbadense 25.2* 

conglomeration 25  •  5 ' 

acuminatum 29.4' 

arboreum 29.9* 

religiosum 33.3' 

flavidum 37-8' 


Bowman  calls  attention  to  the  fact  that  Egyptian  cotton  is  the 
most  regular  in  both  length  and  diameter;  while  sea-island  cot- 
ton, though  possessing  the  greatest  length  and  fineness  of  staple, 
also  exhibits  the  greatest  variation.  It  is  also  noticeable  that  the 
variation  in  the  diameter  is  proportionately  very  much  larger 
than  the  variation  in  the  length.  Bowman  also  gives  an  inter- 
esting comparison  of  the  size  of  the  individual  cotton  fibre  with 
objects  of  common  experience.  If  a  single  fibre  of  American  cot- 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES   OF  COTTON.     197 

ton  were  magnified  until  it  becomes  i  inch  in  diameter,  it  would 
be  a  little  over  100  feet  long,  while  a  sea-island  fibre  of  the  same 
diameter  would  be  about  130  feet.  It  requires  from  14,000  to 


g:-  e  8 


FIG.  55.  —  Showing  Comparative  Lengths  of  Different  Cottons,  (Maxima  and  Minima.) 
(After  Lecomtc.) 

Sea  Island 
Long 

I    j? 

E 

Tahiti 

1    I 

3       ^ 

i 

i 

i 

Htngung- 
hat 

tf 

I 

OMM 

•••• 

•••• 

•M 

20,000  individual  fibres  of  American  cotton  to  weigh  i  grain,  hence 
there  are  about  140,000,000  in  each  pound,  and  each  fibre  weighs 
on  an  average  only  about  0.00006  grain.  If  the  separate  fibres  con- 
tained in  one  pound  were  placed  end  to  end  in  a  straight  line, 
they  would  reach  2,200  miles. 


I98 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Hohnel  gives  the  following  table  of  the  different  varieties  of 
cotton  arranged  according  to  their  length  of  staple: 


Gossypium  barbadense 


•vitifolium 
conglomeratum 
acuminatum 
arboreum 
herbaceum.  .  . 


(Sea-island) 4 . 05  cm. 

(Brazilian) 4 .  oo 

(Egyptian) 3.89 

(Pernambuco) 3 . 59 

(Martinique) 3.51 

(Indian) 2 . 84 

(Indian) z .  50 

(Macedonian) i .  82 

(Bengal) 1.03 


From  its  behavior  with  a  solution  of  ammoniacal  copper  oxide, 
the  cotton  fibre  appears  to  consist  of  four  distinct  parts  struc- 
turally. When  treated  with  this  solution  and  examined  under 
the  microscope,  the  fibre  is  seen  to  swell,  but  not  uniformly;  it 
seems  that  at  regular  intervals  there  are  annular  sections  which 
do  not  swell.*  The  result  is  that  the  fibre  assumss  the  form  of  a 
distended  tube  tied  at  intervals  somewhac  after  the  manner  of  a 
string  of  sausages.  Soon  the  main  portion  of  the  fibre  begins  to 
dissolve,  whereupon  the  walls  of  the  central  canal  are  seen  quite 
prominently;  the  dissolving  action  proceeds  rapidly,  but  appar- 
ently there  is  a  thin  cuticular  tissue  surrounding  the  fibre  wThich 
resists  the  action  of  the  solvent  for  a  much  longer  time  than  the 
inner  portion.  The  walls  of  the  central  canal  also  resist  the 
action  of  the  liquid  to  even  a  greater  extent  than  the  external 
tissue;  the  annular  contracted  ligatures  in  the  fibre  also  persist 
aftei  the  rest  of  the  fibre  has  dissolved.  Thus  we  have  four 
structural  parts  made  evident  (see  Fig.  60)  ; 


*  Hohnel  considers  these  ligatures  as  merely  parts  of  the  cuticle;  he  explains 
their  format:'oa  by  the  fibre  swelling  so  considerably  as  to  rupture  the  undisturbed 
cuticle,  which  in  places  adheres  to  the  fibre  in  the  form  of  irregular  shreds  which 
are  visible  only  with  difficulty.  In  other  places  where  the  rupture  occurs  obliquely 
to  the  length  cf  the  fibre,  the  cuticle  becomes  drawn  together  in  annular  bands 
surrounding  the  fibre,  while  between  these  rings  the  much-distended  cellulose 
protrudes  in  the  form  of  globules.  The  inner  membrane  or  canal  which  persists 
after  the  rest  of  the  fibre  has  dissolved  is  an  exceedingly  thin  tissue  of  dried  proto- 
plasm which  was  contained  in  the  living  fibre.  On  bleached  cotton  the  cuticle 
may  be  almost  entirely  lacking,  and  hence  such  fibres  will  not  exhibit  the  charac- 
teristic appearance  above  mentioned. 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON.     199 

(a)  The  main  cell- wall,  probably  composed  of  pure  cellulose, 
and  rapidly  and  completely  soluble  in  the  reagent. 

(b)  An  external  cuticular  fibre,  probably  of  modified  cellulose, 
and  more  resistant  to  the  action  of  the  reagent. 

(c)  The  wall  of  the  central  canal,  which   resists  the  solvent 
power  of  the  reagent  even  more  than  the  cuticle. 

(d)  The  annular  ligatures  surrounding  the  fibre  at  intervals, 
which  persist  even  after  the  canal- walls  have  dissolved. 

O'Neill  (in  1863)  first  pointed  out  this  complex  structure  of 
the  cotton  fibre.  He  says:  "I  believe  that  in  cotton-hairs  I 
could  discern  four  different  parts.  First,  the  outside  membrane, 
which  did  not  dissolve  in  the  copper  solution.  Second,  the  real 
cellulose  beneath,  which  dissolved,  first  swelling  out  enormously 
and  dilating  the  outside  membrane.  Thirdly,  spiral  fibres, 
apparently  situated  in  or  close  to  the  outside  membrane,  not 
readily  soluble  in  the  copper  liquid.  These  were  not  so  elastic 
as  the  outside  membrane  and  acted  as  strictures  upon  it,  pro- 
ducing bead-like  swellings  of  a  most  interesting  appearance;  and 
fourthly,  an  insoluble  matter,  occupying  the  core  of  the  cotton- 
hair,  and  which  resembled  very  much  the  shrivelled  integument  in 
the  interior  of  quills  prepared  for  making  pens."  He  also  notes 
that  the  insoluble  outside  membrane  was  not  evident  on  bleached 
cotton,  hence  concluding  that  either  it  had  been  dissolved  away, 
or  some  protecting  resinous  varnish  had  been  removed,  and 
then  it  became  soluble.  He  also  obtained  the  same  general 
results  by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  and  chloride  of  zinc  in 
place  of  the  ammoniacal  copper  oxide  solution. 

According  to  Butter  worth,  who  observed  the  cotton  fibre 
treated  with  the  ammoniacal  copper  oxide  solution  under  a  magnifi- 
cation of  i  ,6co  diameters,  there  are  spiral  threads  apparently  cross- 
ing and  tightly  bound  round  the  fibre  at  irregular  distances,  also 
spiral  threads  passing  from  one  stricture  to  another;  the  core  of 
the  fibre  has  a  spiral  form,  and  in  cross-section  shows  the  presence 
of  concentric  rings  (see  Figs.  58  and  59). 

There  appears  to  be  some  difference  in  the  action  of  ammoniacal 
copper  oxide  solution  on  fibres  of  different  physiological  structure. 
Immature  or  unripe  fibres  dissolve  readily  without  exhibiting 


200  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

any  structural  differences.  The  tubular-shaped  fibres  swell  out 
as  a  whole  and  finally  dissolve  without  showing  any  structural 
modifications,  except  that  in  many  cases  an  inner  core  is  left. 

Examination  with  the  highest  microscopic  powers  has  not 
shown  any  cellular  structure  pertaining  to  the  cellulosic  contents 
of  the  cotton  fibre;  it  is  probably  composed  of  fine  layers  super- 
imposed one  upon  the  other. 

2.  Microscopical  Properties. — The  microscopical  characteris- 
tics of  the  cotton  fibre  are  so  pronounced  as  to  readily  differentiate 
it  from  all  others.  As  already  noted,  it  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  flat,  ribbon-like  band  more  or  less  twisted  on  its  longitudinal 
axis  (see  Fig.  56).  The  edges  of  the  fibre  are  somewhat  thickened » 
and  usually  present  irregular  corrugations.  The  fibre  also  at 
times  presents  the  appearance  of  a  rather  smooth  flat  band  with 
little  or  no  thickened  edges.  The  twist  *  of  the  fibre  does  not 
appear  to  be  continuous  in  one  direction;  a  portion  of  a  fibre  may 
be  twisted  axially  to  the  right,  then  exhibit  a  flattened  portion 
without  any  twist  at  all,  then  again  show  an  axial  twist  to  the 
left.  For  about  three-fourths  of  its  length  the  fibre  maintains  a 
comparatively  uniform  diameter,  then  it  gradually  tapers  to  a 
point,  where  it  is  perfectly  cylindrical  and  often  solid  (sae  Fig.  61). 
In  some  cases  portions  of  a  fibre  may  exhibit  cylindrical  and  ap- 
parently solid  spaces,  doubtless  caused  by  irregularities  in  the  growth 
of  the  cell.  At  these  places  the  strength  of  the  fibre  is  weakened, 
and  will  not  absorb  solutions  to  the  same  degree  as  the  rest  of 
the  fibre.  The  cell-wall  is  rather  thin  and  the  lumen  occupies 
about  two-thirds  of  the  entire  breadth  and  shows  up  very  prom- 
inently in  polarized  light.  Between  its  thickened  edges  the  fibre 
exhibits  the  appearance  of  a  finely  granulated  surface.  Fibres 
of  dead  cotton,  or  those  which  have  not  reached  their  full  maturity, 

*  The  twist  of  the  cotton  fibre  appears  to  be  a  character  acquired  through 
cultivation,  as  it  is  not  possessed  by  wild  cotton.  Monie  (The  Cotton  Fibre,  p.  25) 
explains  the  twist  in  cotton  as  follows:  The  rotary  motion  begins  with  the  process 
of  vacuation  in  the  fibre,  caused  by  the  withdrawal  of  some  of  the  fluid  in  the 
fibre  when  the  seed  begins  to  ripen,  and  as  this  is  affected  slowly  and  progressively, 
beginning  at  the  extremity  farthest  from  the  seed  and  gradually  receding  towards 
the  base,  the  free  end  or  point  becomes  twisted  on  its  own  axis  several  times, 
thus  producing  the  convoluted  form  exhibited  under  the  microscope. 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON.     201 


FIG.  56. — Cotton  Fibres.  (X5oo.)  Showing  Longitudinal  Veins  and  Cross-sections 

A,  A,  unripe  fibres;  £,  B,  half- ripe  fibres;   C,  (7,  fully  ripe  fibres. 

(After  Bulletin  No.  33,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 


202  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

are  seldom  twisted  spirally  and  do  not  have  a  lumen,  but  are  thin, 
transparent  bands*  (see  Fig.  56,  .4). 

Microscopically  cotton  fibres  differ  considerably  among  them- 
selves, but  in  general  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 

(a)  Fibres    exhibiting    a    smooth,    straight,    flat    appearance 
with  no  suggestion  of  internal  structure.     These  include  immature 
cotton  fibres  and  also  fibres  which  have  overripened.    The  external 
wall  of  the  fibre  is  very  thin  (see  Fig.  56,  B). 

(b)  Fibres    exhibiting    a    normal   appearance   through    some 
portions   of   their   length,    and    in   other   parts   a    structureless 
appearance  as  in  (a).     These  may  be  termed  "kempy"  fibres;  the 
solid,   tubular  portion  of  the  fibre  is  particularly  resistant   to 
the  absorption  of  liquids  and  dyestuffs,  and  consequently  remains 
uncolored  while  the  rest  of  the  fibre  is  dyed. 

(c)  Straight,  tubular  fibres  exhibiting  a  well-defined  internal 
structure  and  a  transparent  cell-wall  of  varying  thickness.f 

(</)  Normal  structure  of  twisted,  banfl-like  form  (see  Fig.  56,  C). 

In  cross-section  the  immature  fibres  show  only  a  single  line 
with  no  structure,  and  but  little  or  no  indication  of  an  internal 
opening.  The  mature  fibre  is  thicker  in  cross-section  and  exhibits 
a  central  opening. 

The  most  characteristic  of  the  microchemical  reactions 
for  cotton  is  that  with  ammoniacal  copper  solution,  already 
described.  With  bleached  cotton  the  external  cuticle  may  be 
absent,  and  hence  such  a  fibre  may  not  show  any  distension. 
With  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  the  cotton  fibre  becomes  blue 
in  color,  though  the  cuticle  remains  colorless.  Tincture  of 
madder  gives  an  orange  color;  fuchsin  produces  a  red  color 
which  is  destroyed  by  the  addition  of  ammonia.  Flax  does 
not  show  this  latter  reaction,  hence  this  serves  as  a  chemical  means 
of  distinguishing  between  cotton  and  linen. J  Anhydrous  stannic 

*  Unripe  cotton  has  not  much  value  for  purposes  of  manufacture,  as  it 
contracts  and  curls  up  in  the  warm  atmosphere  of  the  mill,  and  consequently 
yarn  containing  much  unripe  fibre  depreciates  considerably. 

f  Fibres  of  this  character  may  often  be  mistaken  under  the  microscope  for 
linen,  especially  if  the  cell-wall  is  thick.  The  fibres  of  Gossypium  conglomeratum 
are  especially  liable  to  show  this  form. 

J  Provided  the  linen  is  unbleached.  Bleached  linen  shows  scarcely  any  differ- 
ences from  cotton  in  its  chemical  tests. 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON.     203 

chloride  gives  a  black  color,  and  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  the 
cotton  fibre  rapidly. 

3.  Physical  Properties. — The  natural,  spiral-like  twist  present 
in  the  cotton  fibre  causes  the  latter  to  be  especially  adaptable  to 


FIG.  57. — Root  of  Cotton  Fibre.-     (  X3OO.)    Showing  the  Irregular  Fracture  caused 
by  the  Fibre  being  Torn  from  the  Seed.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

purposes  of  spinning.  The  spinning  qualities  of  the  cotton 
fibre,  however,  depend  not  only  on  the  nature  and  amount  of 
twist  which  causes  the  individual  fibres  to  lock  themselves  firmly 


FIG.  58. Cotton  Swollen  with  Schweitzer's  Reagent.      (X3OO.) 

(Micrograph  by  author.) 

together,  but  also  on  the  length  and  fineness  of  staple.  These 
tMtee  qualities  in  general  will  determine  the  character  and  fineness 
of  yarn  which  may  be  spun  from  any  sample  of  cotton.  Sea- 
island  cotton  lends  itself  to  the  spinning  of  very  fine  yarns,  being 


204  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

spun  to  even  30o's  (that  is,  300  hanks  of  840  yds.  each  would 
weigh  i  pound),  and  in  an  experimental  manner  this  cotton  is 
said  to  have  been  spun  as  fine  as  2OOo's. 

In  its  tensile  strength  cotton  stands  between  silk  and  wool; 
whereas,  in  elasticity,  it  is  considerably  below  either  of  the  other 
two  fibres.  The  breaking  strain  of  cotton  will  vary  from  2.5 


FIG.  59. — Portion  of  Fig.  58  More  Highly  Magnified.     (  X  1500.)     The  Structure 
of  the  Cotton  Cellulose  is  here  plainly  visible.      (Micrograph  by  author.) 

to  10  grams,  depending  on  the  fineness  of  staple;    the  finer  the 
fibre  the  less  will  be  its  breaking  strain. 

The  table  at  the  top  of  page  205  shows  the  results  of  experi- 
ments on  the  tensile  strength  of  different  varieties  of  cotton.  * 

*  Lecomte  gives  the  following  table  showing  the  breaking  strain  of  various 
cotton  fibres: 

Cotton. 

New  Orleans 9 

Texas 6.6 

Peru  (harsh) 10.5 

Peru  (long,  silky) 4.1 

Sea-island 8 

Port  -au-Prince 9.5 

Haiti    5.1 

Tahiti 4.9 

Jumel  (brown) 7.6 

Bengal 4 

Tinnevelly 3.2 


PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES   OF  COTTON.     205 


Cotton. 

Mean  Breal 

dng  Strain. 

Grains. 

Grams. 

Sea-island  (Edisto) 

g?      Q 

Queensland  

147  6 

0   50 

Egyptian  

127    2 

7  26 

Maranham  

lOJ    I 

6  06 

Bengal   .        ...        

w.yw 

6  s^ 

Upland  

104.  5 

6.  79 

Surat  (Dhollerah)  

141  9 

9.  22 

Surat  (Comptah)  

163-7 

10.64 

The  full  tensile  strength  of  the  individual  fibre,  however,  is 
not  utilized  in  the  spun  yarn.*  Single  yarns  will  give  only  about 
20  per  cent.,  or  one-fifth  of  the  breaking  strain  calculated  from 
the  strength  of  the  separate  fibres;  two-ply  yarns  give  about 
25  per  cent.f 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  comparative  values  of  the 
tensile  strength  of  different  fibres.  The  "breaking  length" 


*  Herzfeld  ( Yarns  and  Textile  Fabrics,  p.  95)  gives  the  following  tables  show- 
ing the  strength  in  grams  of  single  cotton  yarns  of  different  counts,  the  numbering 
of  the  yarns  being  according  to  the  metric  system: 


No. 

Weak. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Very 
Strong. 

No. 

Weak. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Very 

Strong. 

4 

880 

1000 

1250 

32 

I2S 

170 

200 

250 

6 

670 

920 

1080 

1340 

34 

120 

160 

190 

220 

8 

500 

690 

810 

1000 

36 

no 

15° 

180 

210 

10 

400 

55° 

650 

800 

38 

!°5 

140 

170 

200 

12 

33° 

460 

540 

660 

40 

100 

*35 

160 

190 

'4 

28? 

39° 

460 

57° 

5° 

no 

130 

I4O 

16 

*^J 

250 

340 

400 

500 

60 

90 

ow 

no 

"5 

18 

220 

300 

360 

440 

70 

80 

90 

'05 

20 

200 

280 

320 

400 

80 

70 

80 

95 

22 

180 

250 

295 

360 

9° 

60 

70 

85 

24 

170 

230 

270 

33° 

100 

55 

65 

80 

26 

150 

210 

250 

310 

no 



5° 

60 

70 

28 

140 

200 

230 

290 

120 

45 

55 

60 

3° 

13° 

180 

215 

260 

t  Monie  (The  Cotton  Fibre)  gives  a  table  (see  page  206)  showing  the  strength 
of  cotton  fibres  after  manufacture  into  yarn  in  relation  to  those  in  their  natural 
condition. 


206 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


refers  to  a  length  of  thread  which  will  break  by  reason  of  its  own 
weight. 


Fibre. 

Breaking  Length 
in  Kilometres. 

Tensile  Strength, 
Kilograms  per 
Square  mm. 

Cotton 

,7  6 

Wool  
Raw  silk  
Flax  fibres  
Jute  
China  grass  

8-3 
33-o 
24.0 
20.  o 

20.0 

10.9 
44-8 

35-2 
28.7 

Manila  hemp  

31.8 

Cocoanut  fibre  
Vegetable  silk  

I7.8 
24-5 

29.2 

4.  Hygroscopic  Quality. — Cotton  is  less  hygroscopic  than 
either  wool  or  silk;  under  normal  conditions  it  will  contain  from 
5  to  8  per  cent,  of  hygroscopic  moisture,  though  in  a  very  moist 
atmosphere  this  may  be  considerably  increased. 

The  hygroscopic  quality  of  cotton  (and,  in  fact,  any  other  vege- 
table fibre  as  well)  has  much  to  do  with  its  proper  condition  during 


CARDED  COTTON. 


Average 

Test 

Number 
of 

Strength 
of 

Calcu- 
lated 

Actual 

Percent- 

Description  of  Yarn. 

Fibres 
in  Cross- 
section 

each 
Fibre 

in 

Strength 
of  Yarn 
in  Lbs. 

in  Lbs. 

Strength 
Utilized. 

of  Yarn. 

Grains. 

32*3  twist  American  cotton.  .....    . 

120 

140 

200 

49-5 

24.7 

26*3      '            '  *            '  ' 

I  IO 

176 

1  60 

46*3            Egyptian  cotton  

132 

146 

220 

52.0 

23.6 

CD'S      '           "           "     

IIO 

146 

184 

60  3                                                      

IOO 

146 

167 

7o's           brown  Egyptian  cotton    .  . 

74 

127 

27-5 

21.6 

8o's      '         "            "           "      .... 

60 

ISO 

103 

23-5 

22.8 

COMBED  COTTON. 


8o's  twist   Gallini  cotton  

66 

18 

I20'S                         "                "       

5° 

120 

68 

15 

22 
22     ft 

i  os's             Sea-island  cotton  
190*5                     "           *'      

45 
38 

IOO 
IOO 

55 
43 

13 
10.5 

25-4 
24-4 

PHYSICAL  STRUCTURE  AND  PROPERTIES  Of-'  COTTON.     207 

the  various  processes  of  spinning  and  finishing.  It  also  has  an 
influence  on  the  commercial  valuation  of  the  raw  material,  as  the 
amount  of  hygroscopic  moisture  varies  with  atmospheric  condi- 
tions, and  it  is  important  to  have  a  normal  standard  of  reference 
(see  Conditioning  of  Wool,  chapter  iii).*  Its  influence  on  spinning 


FIG.  60.— Appearance  of  Cotton  Fibre  on  Treatment  with  Schweitzer's  Reagent. 

(After  Witt.) 

a,  transverse  ligatures  of  disrupted  cuticle;    b,  irregular  shreds  of  cuticle  torn 
apart;  c,  swollen  mass  of  cellulose;  d,  walls  of  internal  canal. 

is  even  greater,  and  proper  conditions  of  atmospheric  moisture 
must  be  maintained  in  the  spinning-room  in  order  to  achieve 
the  best  results;  the  spinning  properties  of  raw  cotton,  however, 
are  also  affected  by  other  substances  associated  with  the  cellulose 
of  the  fibre,  but  it  is  without  question  that  the  physical  condi- 
tion of  cotton  is  largely  influenced  by  its  content  of  hygroscopic 
moisture,  and  this  should  be  delicately  adjusted  by  the  spinner 
to  meet  the  conditions  of  his  work.  The  mechanical  treatment 

*  The  amount  of  "regain"  allowed  in  the  conditioning  of  cotton  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  is  8J  per  cent. 


2o8  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

of  woven  textile  materials  in  finishing  processes,  such  as  mangling, 
beetling,  calendering,  etc.,  is  also  dependent  for  good  results  to 
quite  an  extent  on  the  hygroscopic  condition  of  the  fibre;  the 
amount  of  moisture  present  during  the  finishing  operations, 
together  with  the  method  and  degree  of  drying,  should  be  care- 
fully studied.* 


FIG.  61. — Cotton  Fibre.     A,  middle  portions  of  fibre;  B,  points  or  ends  of  fibre. 

When  cotton  is  purified  from  its  adhering  waxy  and  fatty 
matters,  it  becomes  remarkably  absorbent.  This  quality  is 
explained  on  the  supposition  that  the  ripe  cotton  fibre  is  made 
up  of  a  series  of  tissues  of  cellulose,  separated  from  each  other 
by  intercellular  matter,  in  this  way  forming  a  series  of  capillary 
surfaces  which  are  capable  of  exerting  considerable  capillary 
force  upon  any  liquid  in  which  the  fibre  may  be  immersed.  Dry 
cotton  also  appears  to  be  remarkably  absorptive  of  gases;  it  is 
said  that  the  fibre  can  absorb  115  times  its  volume  of  ammonia  at 
the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure. 

*  In  testing  the  influence  of  moisture  on  the  strength  of  cotton  material,  the 

Industrial  Society  at  Mulhouse  reports  as  follows: 

Normal  strength  of  cloth 100 

Saturated  with  moisture 104 

Dried  on  hot  cylinder 86 

Again  dampened. 103 

It  would  appear  from  these  results  that  the  alternate  moistening  and  hot  drying 

ot  cotton  caused  little  or  no  deterioration  in  its  strength. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;  CELLULOSE. 

i.  Chemical  Constitution. — In  its  chemical  composition  cot- 
ton, in  common  with  the  other  vegetable  fibres,  consists  essentially 
of  cellulose.  On  the  surface  there  is  a  protecting  layer  of  more 
or  less  wax  and  oily  matter,  and  also  in  the  fibre  there  is  a  trace 
of  pigment,  which  in  some  varieties  of  cotton  becomes  quite 
emphasized.  The  removal  of  these  substances  is  the  object  of 
the  boiling-out  and  bleaching  process  to  which  cotton  is  sub- 
jected prior  to  its  dyeing  and  printing.  In  reality  the  purified 
cotton  fibre  as  it  exists  in  bleached  material  is  practically  pure 
cellulose,  and  this  compound  alone  appears  to  be  essential  to  its 
structural  organization. 

The  natural  impurities  present  in  the  raw  cotton  fibre  amount 
to  about  4  to  5  per  cent.,  and  consist  chiefly  of  pectic  acid,  color- 
ing-matter, cotton-wax,  cotton-oil,  and  albuminous  matter.  The 
fibre  gives  about  i  per  cent,  of  ash  on  ignition.*  The  oil  present 
in  the  fibre  appears  to  be  identical  with  cottonseed-oil,  and  is 
probably  obtained  from  the  seed  to  which  the  fibre  is  attached. 
The  cotton-wax  serves  as  a  protective  coating  for  the  fibre  and 
makes  it  water-repellent,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  long  time  it 
requires  for  raw  cotton  to  be  wetted  out  by  simply  steeping  in 
water.  This  wax  appears  to  be  closely  analogous  to  carnatiba 
wax;  it  is  not  soluble  in  alkalies,  though  it  may  be  gradually  emul- 
sified by  a  long-continued  boiling  in  alkaline  solutions,  on  which 

*  Bowman  is  of  the  opinion  that  considerable  stress  should  be  laid  on  the 
fact  that  the  cotton  fibre  contains  about  i  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter  as  an  integral 
part  of  its  constitution,  and  this  no  doubt  has  considerable  influence  on  its  struc- 
ture and  properties. 

209 


210  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

fact  is  based  the  "boiling-out"  of  cotton  by  the  ordinary  methods. 
Cotton-wax,  however,  appears  to  be  readily  soluble  in  sulphated 
oils,  such  as  Turkey-red  oil,  and  hence  cotton  may  be  rapidly 
and  thoroughly  wetted  out  by  using  a  solution  of  such  an  oil. 
The  coating  of  wax  over  the  cotton  fibre  appears  to  influence  its 
spinning  qualities  to  a  certain  extent,  as  it  requires,  for  instance, 
a  rather  elevated  temperature  to  successfully  spin  fine  yarns,  in 
order  probably  to  soften  the  waxy  coating  of  the  fibre.*  The  fatty 
acid  present  in  cotton- wax  has  been  found  to  be  identical  with 
margaric  acid.  According  to  Dr.  Schunck,  American  cotton 
contains  about  0.84  per  cent,  of  fatty  matters,  whereas  East 
Indian  cotton  contains  only  0.337  per  cent. 

Analysis  of  cotton- wax  shows  it  to  consist  of  the  following: 

Per  Cent. 

Carbon 80. 38 

Hydrogen 14-51 

Oxygen 5.11 

It  fuses  at  85.9°  C.,  and  solidifies  at  82°  C.,  hence  it  bears  a 
close  analogy  to  both  cerosin,  or  sugar-cane  wax,  and  carnaiiba 
wax. 

The  coloring-matter  of  cotton  has  been  investigated  and  has 
been  found  to  consist  of  two  organic  pigments,  the  one  easily 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  the  other  dissolved  only  by  boiling  alcohol. 
According  to  Schunck,  the  composition  of  these  bodies  from 
Nankin  cotton  is  as  follows : 

A.  Soluble  in  B.  Insoluble  in 

Cold  Alcohol ,  Cold  Alcohol,- 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Carbon 58.22  57-7° 

Hydrogen 5.42  5.60 

Nitrogen 3.73  4.99 

Oxygen 32 . 63  31 . 71 

*  As  the  temperature  falls  the  oily  wax  tends  to  become  stiff  and  gummy, 
and  prevents  the  proper  drawing  of  the  fibre;  while  its  presence  among  the 
thin  laminations  of  the  cell-walls  gives  a  greater  elasticity  to  the  fibre,  and  renders 
it  less  liable  to  sudden  rupture.  The  gradual  drying-up  of  the  more  volatile 
portions  of  this  oil  in  the  fibre,  leaving  the  remaining  portion  thicker  and  stiffer, 
may  also,  and  probably  does,  account  for  the  fact,  noticed  by  most  spinners,  that 
new-crop  cotton  seems  to  work  better  and  makes  less  waste  than  cotton  harvested 
as  the  season  advances.  (Bowman,  Cotton  Fibre,  p.  55.) 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.         21 1 

The  composition  of  the  analogous  coloring-matters  in  American 
cotton  is  practically  identical  with  the  above. 

Pectin  compounds  form  the  greater  portion  of  the  impurities 
present  in  cotton,  and  are  probably  rather  complex  in  nature. 

The  quantity  of  ash  (mineral  matter)  in  raw  bale-cotton  will 
average  considerably  higher  than  that  obtained  from  the  purified 
fibre;  this  is  due  to  adhering  sand  and  dust  which  are  nearly 
always  present.  The  following  table  shows  "the  amount  of  ash 
contained  in  samples  of  different  varieties  of  cotton :  * 

,  Per  Cent. 

Dharwar 4.16 

Dhollerah 6.22- 

Sea-island 1.25 

Peruvian  (soft) i .  68 

(rough) 1.15 

Bengal 3.98 

Broach 3.14 

Oomrawuttee 2.52 

Egyptian  (brown) i .  73 

' '       (white) 1.19 

Pernambuco '. i .  60 

American 1.52 

When  the  amount  of  ash  is  found  to  be  over  i  per  cent.,  the 
excess  may  be  considered  as  mechanically  attached  sand  and 
dust.  The  true  ash  of  the  cotton  fibre  consists  principally  of 
the  carbonates,  phosphates,f  chlorides,  and  sulphates  of  potassium, 

*  Monie  (The  Cotton  Fibre)  gives  a  table  showing  the  percentage  of  sand  or 
mineral  matter  contained  in  bales  of  commercial  cotton  as  they  arrive  at  Liverpool. 


Sea-island  

10 

Upland  10 

Rough  Peruvian  

2C 

Bahia  16 

60 

Broach                           58 

Orleans  
White  Egyptian 

.60 

Oomrawuttee  ...      .93 

Smooth  Peruvian  

.80 
n8 

Dhollerah  4.10 
Comptah  4  18 

Texas/  2 

.10 

Bengal  5.3 

It  is  to  be  presumed  that  Monie  did  not  include  in  the  above  figures  the  amount 
of  mineral  matter  in  cotton  as  obtained  from  the  ash  of  the  purified  fibre,  but 
that  his  figures  represent  the  sand  or  other  foreign  mineral  matter  mechanically 
held  in  the  baled  cotton. 

f  According  to  Calvert  (Jour,  prakt.  Chem     1869,  p.   122),  cotton  samples 


212  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

calcium,  and  magnesium,  as  is  exhibited  by  the  following  analyst 
of  Dr.  Ure: 

Per  Cent. 

Potassium  carbonate 44.80 

' '         chloride 9 . 90 

' '         sulphate 9 . 30 

Calcium  phosphate • 9 .  oo 

' '       carbonate 10.60 

Magnesium  phosphate 8 . 40 

Ferric  oxide 3 .  oo 

Alumina  and  loss 5 .  oo 

The  analyses  of  Davis,  Dreyfus,  and  Holland,  reported  as  a 
mean  from  twelve  different  varieties  of  cotton,  show  a  little 
difference  from  the  above  analysis,  especially  in  having  present 
sodium  carbonate  as  one  of  the  constituents.  The  mean  of 
these  analyses  is  given  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Potassium  carbonate 33-22 

' '         chloride 10.21 

' '         sulphate 13-02 

Sodium  carbonate 3.35 

Magnesium  phosphate 8 . 73 

' '         carbonate 7.81 

Calcium  carbonate 20.26 

Ferric  oxide 3 . 40 

The  albuminous  or  nitrogenous  matter  present  in  cotton 
is  only  of  very  small  amount,  and  doubtless  consists  of  protoplas- 
mic residue.  Different  varieties  of  cotton,  on  analysis,  show 
the  following  percentages  of  nitrogen;  some  of  this,  however, 
may  be  derived  from  mineral  nitrates  which  may  be  present  in 
slight  amount  in  the  fibre  (Bowman) : 

Per  Cent  Nitrogen. 

American o .  030 

Sea-island o .  034 

Bengal o .  039 

Rough  Peruvian o .  033 

Egyptian  (white) o .  029 

1 '       (brown) o .  042 


Mean o .  0345 


from  different   countries  contain  the  following  percentages  of  phosphoric  acid 

soluble  in  water: 

Egypt °-°5S  Surat 0.027 

New  Orleans. . . .   0.049             Carthagena. . . .   0.035  to  0.050 
Bengal °-°55  Cyprus 0.050 


CHEMICAL    PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON ;    CELLULOSE.        213 

Analyses  conducted  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
give  the  average  amount  of  nitrogen  present  in  cotton  as  0.34  per 
cent.  As  this  differs  very  considerably  from  that  obtained  by 
Bowman,  it  may  be  possible  that  the  values  of  the  latter  must 
be  multiplied  by  ten  to  obtain  the  correct  figure. 

Church  and  Miiller  have  made  careful  analyses  of  raw  cotton 
with  the  following  results:  * 

i.  n. 

Cellulose 91-15  9J-35 

Hygroscopic  water 7.56  7 .  oo 

Wax  and  fat 0.51  o .  40 

Nitrogen  (protoplasm) 0.67  0.50 

Cuticular  tissue o.  75 

Ash o.n  0.12 

2.  Cellulose. — This  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  natu- 
rally occurring  chemical  compounds,  as  it  forms  the  basis  of  all 
vegetable  tissue.  Chemically  it  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  and  has  the  empirical  formula  C6H10O5.t  It  belongs 

*  Bulletin  No.  jj  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.)  gives  the  following  analysis  of  the  cot- 
ton fibre,  representing  the  average  of  a  number  of  tests: 
FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS. 

Per  Cent. 

Water 6.07 

Ash 1.37 

Nitrogen 0.34 

Phosphoric  acid o.  10 

Potash o.  46 

Soda o .  09 

Lime o.  19 

Magnesia o .  08 

Ferric  oxide 0.02 

Sulphuric  acid 0.6 

Chlorin o .  07 

Insoluble  matter o .  05 

PROXIMATE  CONSTITUENTS. 

Water 6. 74 

Ash i .  65 

Protein i .  50 

Fibre  (cellulose) 83 . 71 

Nitrogen-free  extract 5 . 79 

Fat 0.61 

t  The  cellulose  of  all  vegetable  tissues,  even  in  a  highly  purified  condition, 
appears  to  contain  a  small  amount  of  mineral  constituents,  apparently  forming 


214  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

to  a  class  of  bodies  known  as  carbohydrates,  and  is  closely  related 
to  the  starches,*  dextrins,  and  sugars.  Chemically  considered, 
these  compounds  must  all  be  regarded  as  alcohols  containing 
aldehydic  and  ketonic  groups.  The  word  "  cellulose  "  must  not 
be  taken  as  signifying  a  simple  definite  substance  of  unvarying 
properties,  but  rather  as  a  generic  term  including  quite  a  number 
of  bodies  of  similar  chemical  nature.  Like  starch  and  other 
complex  carbohydrates  of  organic  physical  structure,  cellulose 
will  vary  somewhat  in  its  properties,  depending  upon  its  source 
or  derivation.  As  a  class  the  celluloses  exhibit  certain  chemical 
characteristics,  by  means  of  which  they  may  be  distinguished 
from  associated  bodies  of  allied  chemical  constitution.  Physically 
they  are  colorless  amorphous  substances  capable  cf  withstanding 
rather  high  temperatures  without  decomposition.  They  are 
insoluble  in  nearly  all  of  the  usual  solvents,  but  dissolve  more 
or  less  completely  in  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  oxide 
(Schweitzer's  reagent). f  Solution  in  this  latter  reagent  appparently 

an  integral  or  organic  portion  of  the  fibre  structure.  The  amount  of  ash,  for 
instance,  obtained  from  bleached  cotton  is  about  o.i  to  0.4  per  cent.  Even 
"Swedish"  filter-paper,  which  has  been  treated  with  hydrochloric  and  hydrofluoric 
acids  for  the  removal  of  inorganic  constituents,  will  still  contain  from  0.03  to 
0.05  per  cent,  of  ash. 

*  Though  cellulose  appears  to  be  somewhat  analogous  to  these  bodies,  it  never- 
theless differs  from  them  in  its  much  greater  resistance  to  the  hydrolytic  action 
of  acids,  alkalies,  and  enzymes.  The  latter  reagents  readily  split  up  the  starches 
into  simpler  bodies;  but  no  such  reaction,  through  artificial  means  at  least,  has 
been  observed  in  the  case  of  cellulose.  That  such  a  reaction,  however,  takes 
place  in  the  tissues  of  the  growing  plant  there  is  no  doubt. 

t  Cross  and  Bevan  make  the  following  remarks  respecting  this  reagent:  The 
solutions  of  cuprammonium  compounds  generally,  in  the  presence  of  excess 
of  ammonia,  attack  cellulose  rapidly  in  the  cold,  forming  a  series  of  gelatinous 
hydrates,  passing  ultimately  into  fully  soluble  forms.  The  solutions  of  the  pure 
cuprammonium  hydroxide  are  more  active  in  producing  these  effects  than  the 
solutions  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  a  copper  salt  with  excess  of  ammonia. 
Two  methods  are  in  common  use  for  the  preparation  of  these  solutions,  which 
should  contain  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  ammonia  and  2  to  2.5  per  cent,  of  copper 
as  the  oxide,  (i)  Hydrated  copper  oxide  is  prepared  by  precipitating  a  solu- 
tion of  copper  sulphate  of  2  per  cent,  strength  with  a  slight  excess  of  a  dilute  solu- 
tion of  sodium  hydrate.  The  precipitate  is  washed  until  it  is  entirely  free  from 
alkali.  The  original  solution  in  which  the  solution  takes  place,  as  well  as  the 
water  used  in  washing,  should  contain  a  small  quantity  of  glycerol.  The  washed 
precipitate  is  well  drained,  and  then  mixed  with  a  quantity  of  a  10  per  cent,  solu- 


CHEMICAL   PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.        215 

takes  place  without  decomposition,  as  the  cellulose  may  be  repre- 
cipitated  unchanged  therefrom  by  the  addition  of  acids  and 
various  salts.  In  order  to  obtain  pure  cellulose  for  chemical 
purposes,  it  is  customary  to  treat  cotton  successively  with  dilute 
caustic  alkali,  dilute  acid,  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.*  The  re- 
sult of  this  treatment  is  to  remove  all  foreign  and  encrusting 
materials  from  the  raw  fibre,  and  possibly  also  to  remove  the 
thin,  external  cuticular  membrane  which  may  be  chemically 
different  from  the  rest  of  the  tissue.  The  specific  gravity  or 
density  of  cellulose  as  obtained  in  the  usual  manner  is  about  1.5, 
and  this  also  represents  the  density  of  cotton  and  most  other 
plant  fibres.  Chemically  considered,  cellulose  is  a  derivative 
of  the  open-chain  or  paraffin  series  of  hydrocarbons,  and  further- 
more it  exhibits  the  reactions  of  a  saturated  compound.  As 
with  the  other  carbohydrates,  chemists  have  found  it  a  matter 
of  great  difficulty  to  ascertain  even  approximately  the  true  mo- 
lecular formula  of  cellulose.  Though  its  empirical  formula  is 
C6H10O5,  this  in  no  way  represents  the  true  molecular  complexity 

lion  of  glycerol,  in  contact  with  which  it  may  be  preserved  unchanged  in  stoppered 
bottles.  When  desired  for  use,  the  oxide  is  washed  free  from  glycerol  and  dis- 
solved in  ammonia  water  (of  15  to  20  per  cent  strength).  (2)  Metallic  copper, 
in  the  form  of  sheet  or  turnings,  is  placed  in  a  cylinder  and  covered  with  strong 
ammonia;  atmospheric  air  is  caused  to  bubble  through  the  column  of  liquid 
at  a  rate  calculated  to  40  times  the  volume  of  the  liquid  used  per  hour.  In 
about  six  hours  a  liquid  of  the  requisite  composition  is  obtained.  Solutions  con. 
taining  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  cellulose  are  readily  prepared  by  digestion  in  the  cold 
with  10  to  20  times  the  weight  of  cuprammonium  solution,  a  rather  ropy  or  gelat- 
inous solution  being  obtained.  The  cellulose  is  readily  precipitated  from  the 
solution:  (a)  by  the  addition  of  neutral  dehydrating  agents,  such  as  alcohol, 
sodium  chloride,  and  other  salts  of  the  alkalies,  and  (b)  by  the  addition  of  acids, 
in  which  case  the  cellulose  is  precipitated  in  the  pure  state,  or  free  from  copper 
oxide. 

*  Cross  and  Bevan  recommend  the  following  procedure  in  the  isolation  of 
pure  cellulose  in  the  study  of  the  vegetable  fibres:  (a)  The  fibrous  raw  material 
is  boiled  with  a  dilute  (i  to  2  per  cent.)  solution  of  caustic  soda,  and,  after  thorough 
washing,  is  (b)  exposed  in  the  moist  state  to  an  atmosphere  of  chlorin  gas;  (c)  it 
is  again  treated  with  boiling  alkali.  By  such  treatment  the  "non-cellulose" 
constituents  of  most  vegetable  fibres  are  removed,  and  a  residue  of  pure  cellulose 
is  obtained.  A  subsequent  slight  treatment  with  a  dilute  solution  of  chloride 
of  lime  for  the  removal  of  traces  of  coloring-matters,  and  a  final  washing  with 
alcohol  and  ether  completes  the  purification. 


216  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

of  the  substance.*  From  a  study,  however,  of  its  various  synthet- 
ical derivatives,  with  special  reference  to  its  esters,  such  as  the 
acetates,  benzoates,  and  nitrates,  the  provisional  formula  of 
Ci2H2oOio  has  been  given  to  the  cellulose  molecule.  The  nature 
and  position  of  the  various  organic  groups  present  in  this  mo- 
lecular formula,  however,  have  yet  to  be  explained,  f 

*  There  has  been  a  considerable  amount  of  speculation  among  chemists  as 
to  the  chemical  nature  and  constitution  of  cellulose,  but  there  has  been  so  little 
experimental  data  on  which  to  frame  an  intelligent  theory,  that  most  of  these 
speculations  are  mere  scientific  guesswork,  and  have  little  more  than  a  pro- 
visional value.  From  the  action  of  zinc  chloride  on  cellulose  it  has  been  pre- 
sumed that  the  cellulose  molecule  contains  hydroxyl  groups  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  give  it  a  salt-like  property,  and  the  solution  of  the  cellulose  in  the  zinc  chloride 
is  supposed  to  be  due  to  the  formation  of  a  kind  of  double  salt.  There  also  appears 
to  be  a  chemical  reaction  of  limited  degree  between  cellulose  and  dilute  solutions 
of  caustic  alkalies  and  mineral  acids.  According  to  Mills,  the  relative  molecular 
ratio  of  the  absorption  by  cellulose  of  alkalies  and  acids  is  represented  by 
ioNaOH:3HCl.  From  this  and  other  considerations,  it  would  appear  that 
cellulose  exhibits  the  properties  of  a  feeble  acid  and  of  a  still  more  feeble  base. 

t  Vignon  has  proposed  to  give  cellulose  the  following  constitutional  formula: 

"T\ 

O 
— CH/ 

This  is  based  on  a  study  of  the  highest  nitrate  of  cellulose  and  the  decomposi- 
tion of  the  nitrate  by  alkalies  with  formation  of  hydroxypyruvic  acid.  The  struc- 
ture given,  however,  is  more  or  less  hypothetical  in  nature,  and  needs  experimental 
confirmation  in  many  particulars  before  it  can  be  accepted  without  question 
The  older  chemical  configuration  of  cellulose  given  by  Bowman, 
H  H  H 

H— C— C=C=C— C— C— H, 
OH  OH       OH  OH  OH 

is  without  any  experimental  reason  for  its  existence,  and  the  idea  that  it  contains 
an  unsaturated  carbon  grouping,  —  C=C— ,  has  been  proved  erroneous.  From 
a  study  of  the  osazones  of  oxycellulose,  Vignon  has  ascribed  to  this  latter  body 
the  constitutional  formula  of  the  group, 

/COH 
(CHOH)/ 

XCH— CO, 

v 

O 

in  union  with  varying  proportions  of  residual  cellulose. 

The  existence  of  a  compound  containing  cellulose  and  sulphuric  acid  in  the 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.        217 

In  its  chemical  reactions  cellulose  is  particularly  inert,  com- 
bining with  only  a  few  substances,  and  then  only  with  great  diffi- 
culty and  under  peculiar  conditions.  It  is  quite  resistant  to  the 
processes  of  oxidation  and  reduction,  and  hydrolysis  and  dehy- 
dration.* Concentrated  sulphuric  acid  dissolves  cellulose  with 
the  production  of  a  viscous  solution;  dilution  with  water  causes 
the  precipitation  of  an  amorphous  substance  known  as  amyloid, 
a  starch-like  body  having  the  formula  Ci2H22On,  and  like  starch 
it  is  colored  blue  with  iodin.  On  this  reaction  is  based  the 
method  of  testing  for  cellulose,  by  applying  sulphuric  acid  and 
iodin.  On  boiling  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  cellulose  is  con- 
verted into  dextrin  and  glucose.  On  heating  with  acetic  anhy. 
dride  to  i8o°C.,  cellulose  is  converted  into  an  acetyl  deriva- 
tive having  the  formula  C^H^O^OCOCHa^.f  By  the  mod- 
erated action  of  concentrated  acids  and  various  acid  salts,  cellulose 
appears  to  undergo  a  process  of  hydration,  being  converted  into 
a  friable  amorphous  body  known  as  hydrocettulose  or  more 
properly  hydrated  cellulose. %  This  reaction  is  of  importance 


proportion  4C6H10O5  to  H;>SO4  is  put  forward  as  a  proof  that  in  its  reactions  cellu- 
lose behaves  like  a  complex  molecule  of  at  least  24  carbon  atoms.  (See  Cross,. 
Bevan,  and  Briggs,  Berich'.e,  1905,  p.  1859.) 

*  This  high  degree  of  resistance  to  hydrolysis  (alkaline)  and  oxidation  belongs 
only  to  cotton  cellulose  and  to  the  group  of  which  it  is  the  type,  and  which  includes 
the  cellulose  of  flax,  ramie,  and  hemp.  A  large  number  of  celluloses,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  distinguished  by  considerable  reactivity,  due  to  the  presence 
of  "free"  carbonyl  groups,  and  are  therefore  more  or  less  easily  hydrolyzed  and 
oxidized.  The  celluloses  of  the  cereal  straws  and  esparto  grass  are  of  this  type, 
and  hence  the  relative  inferiority  of  the  papers  into  the  composition  of  which 
they  enter.  (Cross  and  Bevan,  Jour.  Chem.  Soc.,  1894,  p.  472.) 

t  Cellulose  does  not  react  directly  with  acetic  anhydride,  but  at  the  tempera- 
ture above  given  and  with  six  times  its  weight  of  the  anhydride  it  gives  the  deriv- 
ative having  the  above  formula,  and  which  may  be  called  the  triacetate.  With 
a  smaller  quantity  of  acetic  anhydride,  a  mixture  of  lower  acetates  is  obtained 
which  are  insoluble  in  glacial  acetic  acid.  The  triacetate  is  readily  soluble  in 
this  acid,  however,  and  also  in  nitrobenzene.  Its  solutions  are  very  viscous. 
Regenerated  cellulose,  prepared  by  precipitation  of  viscous  solutions,  reacts  with 
acetic  anhydride  directly,  and  gives  what  appears  to  be  the  tetracetate.  For 
further  remarks  concerning  the  acetylation  of  cellulose  see  Cross  and  Bevan, 
Cellulose  and  Researches  on  Cellulose. 

%  The  formula  suggested  for  hydrocellulose  is  Cion^O,^  Sthamer  (Ham- 
burg) prepares  hydrocellulose  by  treating  cotton  (or  other  form  of  cellulose)' 


2i8  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

in  the  carbonizing  process  for  removing  vegetable  matter  from 
woolen  goods. 

A  concentrated  solution  of  zinc  chloride  will  dissolve  cellulose 
on  heating  and  digesting  for  some  time.*  This  solution  has  been 
employed  industrially  for  the  preparation  of  cellulose  filaments, 
which  are  subsequently  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
washed  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  zinc  salt;  the  thread  is 
then  carbonized  and  is  employed  for  the  carbon  filament  of  incan- 
descent electric  lamps.f  A  concentrated  solution  of  zinc  chloride 
in  hydrochloric  acid  dissolves  cellulose  quite  rapidly  and  in  the 
cold.t  This  latter  method  is  useful  hi  the  laboratory  for  the  study 
of  celluloses,  but  as  yet  has  received  no  technical  application. 
By  means  of  this  solution  it  has  been  shown  that  the  cellulose 
molecule  does  not  contain  any  unsaturated  carbon  groups,  for 
it  exhibits  no  absorption  of  bromin.  A  solution  of  a  ligno- 
cellulose,  on  the  other  hand,  gives  a  marked  bromin  absorption, 
thus  showing  evidence  of  unsaturated  carbon  groups. 

mixed  with  potassium  chlorate  with  hydrochloric  acid  at  a  temperature  of  6o°-7o°  C. 
The  product  obtained  in  this  manner  is  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder  very  resistant 
to  acids  and  alkalies. 

*  Cross  and  Bevan  recommend  the  following  method  for  preparing  this  solu- 
tion of  cellulose:  4  to  6  parts  of  anhydrous  zinc  chloride  are  dissolved  in  6  to  10 
parts  of  water,  and  i  part  of  bleached  cotton  is  then  stirred  in  until  evenly  mois- 
tened. The  mixture  is  digested  for  a  time  at  60°  to  80°  C.,  when  the  cellulose  is 
gelatinized;  the  solution  is  completed  by  heating  on  a  water-bath  and  stirring 
from  time  to  time,  and  replacing  the  water  which  evaporates.  In  this  manner 
a  homogeneous  syrup  is  obtained.  This  solution  of  cellulose  is  entirely  decom- 
posed by  dilution,  the  cellulose  being  precipitated  as  a  hydrate  in  combination 
with  zinc  oxide.  On  washing  this  precipitate  with  hydrochloric  acid  a  pure 
cellulose  hydrate  is  obtained,  the  quantity  recovered  being  approximately  equal 
to  the  original  cellulose  taken.  When  precipitated  by  the  addition  of  alcohol, 
a  compound  of  cellulose  and  zinc  oxide  is  obtained,  with  18  to  25  per  cent,  of 
ZnO,  and  having  the  approximate  molecular  ratio  of  2C6Hi0Os  :  ZnO. 

t  The  threads  for  the  production  of  the  carbon  filaments  are  prepared  by 
forcing  the  syrupy  solution  of  cellulose  through  fine  glass  orifices  into  alcohol, 
whereby  the  cellulose  is  precipitated  in  a  continuous  thread. 

J  The  reagent  is  prepared*  by  dissolving  one  part  of  zinc  chloride  in  twice 
its  weight  of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid.  If  the  solution  of  cellulose  obtained 
with  this  solvent  is  diluted  when  fresh,  the  cellulose  will  be  precipitated  unaltered; 
but  if  the  solution  is  allowed  to  stand,  the  cellulose  is  rapidly  resolved  into 
decomposition  products,  such  as  dextrin,  etc.,  which  are  entirely  soluble  in 
water. 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES   OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.         219 

Cellulose  is  colored  a  deep  violet  by  a  solution  of  zinc  chlor- 
iodide,  and  this  reagent  is  employed  as  a  delicate  test  for  the 
presence  of  cellulose.  The  reagent  may  be  best  prepared  by 
using  90  parts  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  zinc  chloride,  adding 
6  parts  of  potassium  iodide  in  10  parts  of  water,  and  iodin  until 
saturated. 

When  cellulose  is  treated  with  concentrated  caustic  alkalies, 
it  undergoes  a  change  which  may  be  crudely  referred  to  as  "  mer- 
cerization,"  whereby  a  compound  known  as  alkali-cellulose  is 
formed,  in  which  the  molecular  ratio  of  alkali  to  cellulose  may 
be  given  as  Ci2H2oOio:NaOH.  When  this  body  is  treated  with 
carbon  disulphide,  a  substance  known  as  cellulose  thiocarbonate  or 
xanthate  is  formed.  This  body  yields  a  very  viscous  solution  with 
water  and  has  been  utilized  for  various  technical  purposes  (see  vis- 
cose, chapter  xiii).*  Cellulose  xanthate  undergoes  spontaneous 
decomposition,  splitting  up  into  cellulose  hydrate,  alkali,  and  car- 
bon disulphide ;  this  cellulose  hydrate  is  also  known  as  regenerated 
cellulose. ,f  This  substance  can  also  be  precipitated  by  the 

*  The  best  conditions  for  the  preparation  of  viscose  is  to  use  the  reagents  in 
the  following  molecular  proportions:  C6H10Os:2NaOH:CS2  (with  30  to  40  H2O). 

The  reaction  is  carried  out  in  practice  by  treating  bleached  cotton  (though 
other  forms  of  cellulose,  such  as  purified  wood-pulp,  may  also  be  used)  with  ex- 
cess of  a  15  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  soda,  then  squeezing  out  the  excess  of 
liquor,  but  leaving  in  the  fibre  about  three  times  its  weight  of  the  solution.  The 
mass  is  then  mixed  with  about  50  per  cent,  (on  the  weight  of  the  cotton)  of  carbon 
disulphide,  and  allowed  to  stand  in  a  covered  vessel  for  about  three  hours  at  the 
ordinary  temperature;  after  which  sufficient  water  is  added  to  cover  the  mass, 
and  the  hydration  allowed  to  proceed  for  several  hours  longer.  The  mass  is  then 
stirred  up  and  a  homogeneous  solution  is  obtained  which  may  be  diluted  to  any 
desired  degree.  The  solution  thus  prepared  has  a  yellow  color,  which,  however, 
is  due  to  the  presence  of  tri-thiocarbonates  which  occur  as  by-products  in  the 
reaction.  By  treating  the  solution  with  a  saturated  solution  of  common  salt  or 
with  alcohol,  pure  cellulose  thiocarbonate  is  precipitated  as  greenish  white  floc- 
culent  mass,  which  may  be  redissolved  in  water,  giving  a  colorless  or  faintly  yellow- 
colored  solution.  On  the  addition  of  various  metallic  salts  to  this  solution,  the 
corresponding  xanthates  may  be  precipitated.  With  iodin  a  precipitate  of 
dioxy-thiocarbonate  is  formed,  which  may  be  said  to  take  place  in  accordance 
with  the  following  equation: 

/OX     X0\                            /OX— XO\ 
CS         +         CS  +  I2=2NaI  +  CS  CS. 

\SNa    NaS/  \S S/ 

f  When  this  decomposition  takes  place  in  solutions  containing  more  than  one 


220  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

addition  of  various  salts,  such  as  ammonium  chloride.  Alkali- 
cellulose  also  reacts  with  benzoyl  chloride,  with  the  formation  of 
cellulose  benzoate.*  Another  ester  of  cellulose  is  the  acetate,  which 
can  be  made  by  the'action  of  acetic  anhydride  on  cellulose  heated 
in  a  sealed  tube  f — regenerated  cellulose  can  also  be  employed. 
By  varying  the  conditions  of  treatment  a  number  of  different 
acetates  have  been  prepared.  J  The  tetracetate  has  received  a 
number  of  commercial  applications  for  the  production  of  films 
and  for  waterproofing.  By  the  action  of  nitric  acid  under  vary- 
ing conditions,  a  number  of  cellulose  nitrates  (improperly  called 
nitrocelluloses)  have  been  prepared,  which  have  received  numer- 
ous applications  (see  pyroxylin).  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
reacts  with  cellulose  to  form  at  first  a  cellulose  sulphate;  this 

per  cent,  of  cellulose,  a  firm  jelly  of  coagulated  cellulose  is  produced  of  the  same 
volume  as  the  original  solution.  A  solution  containing  as  much  as  10  per  cent, 
of  cellulose  decomposes  to  a  substantial  solid  of  hydrated  cellulose  which  gives 
up  its  water  with  extreme  slowness.  The  cellulose  regenerated  in  this  manner 
is  probably  in  the  "colloidal"  form. 

*  See  Cross  and  Bevan,  Cellulose,  p.  32,  and  Researches  on  Cellulose, 
p.  34,  etc. 

t  According  to  a  recent  patent  (Eng.  Pat.  1905,  No.  9998),  an  almost  theoreti- 
cal yield  of  cellulose  tetracetate  may  be  obtained  by  conducting  the  acetylation  in 
the  presence  of  methyl  sulphate;  the  process  given  being  as  follows:  30  parts  of 
cotton  are  treated  in  a  bath  with  70  parts  of  acetic  anhydride,  120  parts  of  glacial 
acetic  acid,  and  3  parts  of  dimethyl  sulphate  until  solution  is  almost  complete. 
The  solution  is  then  filtered  and  the  filtrate  is  poured  into  a  large  quantity  of 
water,  whereupon  the  acetate  of  cellulose  is  precipitated. 

J  The  acetate  of  cellulose  may  be  prepared  by  heating  a  mixture  of  hydrocel- 
lulose,  acetic  anhydride,  and  sulphuric  acid  to  6o°-7o°  C.  The  acetate  of  cellulose  so 
obtained  is  soluble  in  ether  and  chloroform  (Lederer).  At  Sthamer's  chemical 
works  (Hamburg)  acetate  of  cellulose  is  prepared  by  heating  a  mixture  of  hydrocellu- 
lose,  acetic  acid,  acetyl  chloride,  and  sulphuric  acid  to  65°-7o°  C.  An  acetate  of 
cellulose  soluble  in  alcohol  and  pyridin  is  obtained  by  heating  a  mixture  of  cel- 
lulose, acetic  anhydride,  and  sulphuric  acid  to  45°  C.  (Farbenfabriken  vorms.  Fr. 
Bayer  &  Co.  of  Elberfeld).  Miles  and  Pierce  (Brooklyn)  obtain  it  by  heating  a 
mixture  of  cellulose,  acetic  anhydride,  acetic  acid,  and  sulphuric  acid  to  70°  C. 
Landsberg  substitutes  phosphoric  acid  for  sulphuric  acid  in  the  preceding  mix- 
ture. Acetate  of  cellulose  has  also  been  prepared  by  warming  a  mixture  of  cellulose, 
acetic  acid,  acetic  anhydride,  and  a  mixture  of  phenol-sodium  sulphonate  and 
phenol-sulphonic  acid,  or  of  sodium  naphtholate  and  naphthol-sulphonic  acid 
(Little,  Walker  &  Mork,  Boston).  Cellulose  may  also  be  acetylized  by  means 
of  a  mixture  in  nitrobenzene  solution  of  acetyl  chloride  and  chloride  of  zinc  or 
magnesium,  in  the  presence  of  pyridin  or  quinolin  (Wohl,  Charlottenburg). 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.        221 

subsequently  undergoes  decomposition  with  a  consequent  hy- 
drolysis of  the  cellulose  molecule  and  the  formation  of  amy- 
loid. 

Aceto-sulphates  of  cellulose  have  been  prepared  by  the  joint 
action  of  acetic  acid,  acetic  anhydride,  and  sulphuric  acid  on 
cellulose.* 

Although  cellulose  is  comparatively  inert  to  the  majority  of 
chemical  reagents,  it  has  a  powerful  attraction  for  certain  salts 
held  in  solution  and  will  absorb  them  completely.  This  power 
of  absorption  is  especially  marked  towards  salts  of  vanadium, 
these  being  completely  separated  from  solutions  containing  only 
one  part  of  the  salt  per  trillion. 

Besides  cellulose  itself,  there  are  a  number  of  derived  sub- 
stances which  are  known  as  compound  celluloses.  These  are 
classified  into  three  general  groups: 

(a)  Pectocelluloses,  related  to  pectin  compounds  of  vegetable 
tissues;    represented  among  the  fibres  by  raw  flax;    resolved  by 
hydrolysis  with  alkalies  into  pectic  acid  and  cellulose. 

(b)  Lignocelluloses,  forming  the  main  constituent  of  woody  tis- 
sue and  represented  among  the  fibres  by  jute ;  resolved  by  chlorina- 
tion  into  chlorinated  derivatives  of  aromatic  compounds  soluble 
in  alkalies  and  cellulose. 

(c)  Adipocelluloses,  forming  the  epidermis  or  cuticular  tissue 
of  fibres,  leaves,  etc. ;   resolved  by  oxidation  with  nitric  acid  into 
derivatives  similar  to  those  of  the  oxidation  of  fats  and  cellulose. 

Fremy  groups  the  various  celluloses  and  their  derived  bodies 
in  the  following  manner,  which  is  based  on  a  chemical  classifica- 
tion: (a)  celluloses,  including  normal  cellulose,  paracellulose,  and 
metacellulose;  (6)  vasculose  (identical  with  lignocellulose) ;  (c) 
cutose;  (d)  pectose. 

*  See  Cross,  Bevan  &  Briggs,  Berichte,  1905,  p.  1859.  For  the  preparation 
of  what  these  chemists  term  the  normal  cellulose  aceto-sulphate,  to  which  the 
formula  4(C6H7O2) .  (SO4) .  (C2H3O2)10  is  ascribed,  16  grams  of  dry  cotton  are 
stirred  for  20  minutes  at  30°  C.  in  100  cc.  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  glacial 
acetic  acid  and  acetic  anhydride  containing  4.5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  sulphuric 
acid.  After  standing  for  one  hour,  a  homogeneous,  translucent,  and  viscous  solu- 
tion is  obtained,  which  is  precipitated  on  being  poured  into  water  as  a  semi-trans- 
lucent, gelatinous  hydrate,  which  is  soluble  in  alcohol.  By  using  less  sulphuric 
acid  the  product  obtained  is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 


222  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

3.  Chemical  Reactions  of  Cotton. — Cotton  itself  presents  the 
same  general  reactions  and  chemical  properties  as  cellulose.  It 
is  capable  of  standing  rather  high  temperatures  without  decom- 
position or  alteration;  though  it  appears  that  when  cotton  is  sub- 
jected to  a  temperature  of  160°  C.,  whether  moist  or  dry  heat, 
a  dehydration  of  the  cellulose  takes  place,  accompanied  by  a 
structural  disintegration  of  the  fibre.  This  fact  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  singeing,  calendering,  and  other  finishing  processes 
where  high  temperatures  are  used.  At  250°  C.  cotton  begins  to 
turn  brown ;  and  when  ignited  in  the  air  it  burns  freely,  emitting 
an  odor  faintly  suggesting  acrolein,  but  without  the  characteristic- 
ally empyreumatic  odor  of  burning  animal  fibres.  When  sub- 
jected to  dry  distillation  cotton  is  decomposed  into  methane, 
ethane,  water,  methyl  alcohol,  acetone,  acetic  acid,  carbon  dioxide, 
pyrocatechol,  etc.  Though  unaltered  and  insoluble  in  boiling 
water,  when  heated  with  water  under  pressure  to  200°  C.  it  is 
dissolved  with  complete  decomposition. 

Like  cellulose  itself,  cotton  is  dissolved  by  Schweitzer's  reagent, 
though  under  ordinary  conditions  its  solution  is  a  rather  slow 
process.  In  order  to  dissolve  cotton  most  effectively  in  ammoni- 
acal  copper  oxide,  it  is  recommended  to  treat  the  raw  cotton  with  a 
strong  solution  of  caustic  soda  until  the  fibres  swell  up  and  become 
translucent;  squeeze  out  the  excess  of  liquid,  and  wash  the  cotton 
with  strong  ammonia  water;  then  treat  with  the  solution  of 
ammoniacal  copper  oxide  and  the  cotton  will  be  found  to  dissolve 
quite  rapidly.  This  solution  may  furthermore  be  filtered  and 
diluted  with  water.  The  use  of  this  solution  for  the  production 
of  lustra-cellulose  filaments  has  received  some  degree  of  com- 
mercial application  (see  Pauly  silk,  chapter  xiii).  This  reaction 
is  also  utilized  in  the  preparation  of  a  fabric  known  as  Willesden 
canvas;  the  cotton  fabric  is  passed  through  a  solution  of  am- 
moniacal copper  oxide,  whereby  the  surface  becomes  coated  with 
a  film  of  gelatinized  cellulose  containing  a  considerable  amount  of 
copper  oxide.  On  subsequent  hot  pressing  this  film  is  fixed  on  the 
surface  of  the  material  as  a  substantial  coating,  which  is  said  to 
make  the  canvas  water-proof  and  render  it  unaffected  by  mildew 
and  insects. 


CHEMICAL   PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.         223 

Concentrated  solutions  of  zinc  chloride  are  capable  of  dis- 
solving cotton,  but  only  after  a  prolonged  digestion  at  about 
100°  C.,  though  by  first  treating  the  cotton  with  caustic  alkali 
the  solution  takes  place  hi  the  cold.  The  product  so  obtained 
has  received  several  industrial  applications;  vulcanized  fibre  is 
prepared  by  treating  paper  with  a  concentrated  solution  of  zinc 
chloride,*  and  the  resulting  gelatinous  mass  is  manufactured 
into  various  articles,  such  as  blocks,  sheets,  etc.  The  chief 
difficulty  encountered  is  the  subsequent  removal  of  the  zinc  salt, 
which  necessitates  a  very  lengthy  process  of  washing.  The  ma- 
terial may  be  rendered  water-proof  by  a  further  process  of  nitra- 
tion, f  The  solution  has  also  been  suggested  for  use  as  a  thick- 
ening agent  in  calico-printing.  Its  use  for  the  production  of 
lustra-cellulose  or  artificial  silk  and  incandescent-lamp  filaments 
has  also  been  attempted. 

With  mineral  acids  cotton  exhibits  practically  the  same  gen- 
eral reactions  as  pure  cellulose.  Concentrated  sulphuric  acid 
produces  amyloid  hi  the  manner  already  mentioned,  and  this 
fact  is  utilized  hi  the  preparation  of  what  is  known  as  vegetable 
parchment.  Unsized  paper  is  rapidly  passed  through  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  then  thoroughly  washed  and  dried.  The  effect  of 
this  treatment  is  to  cause  the  formation  on  the  surface  of  the 
paper  of  a  layer  of  gelatinous  amyloid,  which  on  subsequent 
pressing  and  drying  gives  a  tough  membranous  surface  to  the 
paper  resembling  true  parchment.  This  renders  the  paper  grease- 
proof and  water-proof,  and  increases  its  tensile  strength  con- 
siderably. Artificial  horse-hair  has  been  prepared  in  a  similar 
manner  from  certain  Mexican  grasses.  These  latter  are  steeped 
for  a  short  time  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  become 
parchmentized  thereby,  so  that  on  being  subsequently  washed 
and  combed  they  assume  an  appearance  very  much  resembling 
horse-hair,  and  are  said  to  possess  even  greater  elasticity  than 

*  One  part  of  paper  is  treated  with  four  parts  of  zinc  chloride  solution  of  65° 
to  75°  Be.  until  the  fibres  are  partially  gelatinized,  when  the  sheets  are  then  pressed 
together  into  very  compact  masses.  (See  Hofmann,  Handb.  d.  Papierfab.,  p. 
170.) 

f  Hofmann,  ibid.,  p.  1703. 


224  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

horse-hair  itself.  In  place  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  a  solution  of 
zinc  chloride  may  be  used  with  similar  results.  Amyloid  appears 
also  to  be  a  product  of  natural  plant  growth,  as  its  presence  has 
been  detected  in  the  walls  of  vegetable  cells;  it  may  be  recog- 
nized by  giving  a  blue  color  with  iodin. 

Very  dilute  solutions  of  sulphuric  acid,  especially  in  the  cold, 
have  no  appreciable  action  on  cotton.  But  if  the  fibre  is  impreg- 
nated with  such  a  solution  and  then  allowed  to  dry  it  becomes 
tendered;  this  is  owing  to  the  gradual  concentration  of  the  acid 
in  the  fibre  on  drying.  Elevated  temperatures  also  cause  the 
dilute  acid  to  attack  the  fibre  much  more  quickly  and  severely 
.than  otherwise. 

In  all  dyeing  and  bleaching  operations  where  the  use  of  acid 
may  be  required,  the  above  facts  should  always  be  borne  in 
mind;  the  temperature  of  the  acid  baths  should  be  not  above 
70°  F.,  and  the  acid  strength  should  not  be  more  than  2  per 
cent.  Where  higher  temperatures  are  necessary,  organic  acids 
should  be  substituted  for  mineral  acids  wherever  possible.  Acetic 
acid,  for  instance,  is  often  used.  Whenever  cotton  is  treated 
with  acid  solutions  or  with  salts  of  an  acid  nature,  or  which  are 
liable  to  decompose  with  liberation  of  acid,  all  of  the  acid  should 
be  removed  from  the  fibre  or  properly  neutralized  before  drying, 
else  the  material  will  be  tendered  and  probably  ruined.  The 
action  of  dilute  acid  on  cotton  is  probably  an  hydrolysis  of 
the  cellulose  molecule,  with  the  formation  of  cellulose  hydrate, 
causing  a  structural  disorganization  of  the  fibre.*  Hydro- 
chloric acid  has  an  effect  similar  to  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  same 
remarks  concerning  the  use  of  this  latter  acid  in  connection 
with  cotton  also  hold  true  for  the  former.  Strong  nitric  acid  has 
a  somewhat  different  effect  ;f  it  completely  decomposes  cotton,  in 

*  The  action  of  dilute  mineral  acids  on  cotton  seems  to  be  one  of  hydrolysis, 
whereby  a  molecular  change  occurs  in  the  fibre  substance.  This  hydrolytic 
action  is  supposed  to  result  in  the  formation  of  a  hydrate  of  cellulose,  having  the 
formula  2C6H10O5.H2O.  Acetic  acid  has  but  small  hydrolytic  action,  and  conse- 
.quently  has  little  action  on  cotton. 

t  The  action  of  nitric  acid  on  cotton  fabrics  appears  to  be  a  peculiar  one.  The 
following  observations  in  this  respect  have  been  recorded  by  Knecht:  Bleached 
calico  steeped  for  fifteen  minutes  in  pure  nitric  acid  at  80°  Tw.,  washed  and 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.        225 

common  with  other  forms  of  cellulose,  oxidizing  it  to  oxalic 
acid.  When  boiled  with  moderately  concentrated  nitric  acid 
cotton  is  converted  into  oxycellulose,  a  structureless,  friable 
substance  possessing  a  great  affinity  for  basic  dyestuffs.*  When 
mixed  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  however,  the  action 
of  nitric  acid  is  totally  different,  the  cellulose  being  converted 
into  a  nitrated  body,  though  the  physical  appearance  of  the 
fibre  is  not  appreciably  altered.  The  exact  nature  of  the  nitrated 
compound  will  depend  on  the  conditions  of  treatment.  Several 
nitrated  celluloses  are  known  and  possess  commercial  importance; 
they  are  classified  under  the  general  name  of  pyroxylins-t  Gun- 
dried,  showed  a  considerable  contraction,  amounting  to  about  24  per  cent.;  the 
tensile  strength  also  increased  78  per  cent.  Unbleached  yarn,  treated  in  the 
same  manner,  also  showed  a  considerable  increase  of  tensile  strength,  and  a  pro- 
portional contraction  in  length.  Weaker  acids  did  not  show  these  results,  the  fibre 
being  tendered  instead  of  being  strengthened.  Analysis  proved  that  7.7  per  cent, 
of  nitrogen  was  present,  showing  that  about  two  molecules  of  the  acid  had  co.n- 
bined  with  the  cotton.  The  shrinkage,  gain  in  strength,  microscopical  appear- 
ance, etc.,  of  the  treated  material,  all  go  to  show  that  in  addition  to  the  nitration 
a  mercerizing  effect  has  been  produced.  This  appears  in  the  fact  that  the  mater- 
al  exhibits  a  strongly  increased  affinity  for  many  dyestuffs,  especially  the  direct 
cotton  colors  and  some  of  the  acid  dyes;  while  by  reason  of  its  not  showing  any 
increased  affinity  for  the  basic  colors  there  is  proof  that  oxycellulose  has  not  been 
produced.  This  action  of  strong  nitric  acid  on  cellulose  has  been  utilized  for  the 
preparation  of  toughened  filter-papers  which  are  required  to  stand  high  fluid 
pressures.  The  filter-paper  is  immersed  in  concentrated  nitric  acid  for  a  brief 
period  and  then  well  washed. 

*  Oxycellulose  appears  to  have  the  formula  CigHjeO,,.  It  dissolves  in  a  mix- 
ture of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  and  from  the  low  number  of  hydroxyl  groups 
reacting  with  the  nitric  acid,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  compound  is  both  a 
condensed  as  well  as  an  oxidized  derivative  of  cellulose.  Oxycellulose  is  soluble 
in  dilute  solutions  of  the  alkalies,  and,  on  heating,  the  solutions  develop  a  deep- 
yellow  color.  When  warmed  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  it  gives  a  pink 
color  similar  to  that  of  mucic  acid.  In  general  it  exhibits  a  close  resemblance  to 
the  pectic  group  of  colloidal  carbohydrates.  (See  Cross  and  Bevan,  Cellulose, 
p.  56.)  It  is  probable  that  the  oxidation  products  of  cellulose  obtained  by  differ- 
ent means  do  not  all  give  the  same  oxycellulose,  or,  what  is  more  probable,  the 
oxycelluloses  which  have  so  far  been  studied  are  perhaps  mixtures  of  various 
different  bodies  which  have  not  yet  been  separated  and  isolated. 

t  The  following  descriptions  of  the  different  nitrated  products  of  cotton  cellu- 
lose have  been  adapted  from  Cross  and  Bevan,  Cellulose,  In  the  formulas  given 
the  cellulose  unit  group  is  taken  as  Ci^H^OiQ. 

Cellulose  hexanitrale,  or  guncotton,  C12H,4O4(NO3)6,  is  made  by  the  use  of 
3  parts  nitric  acid  of  sp.  gr.  1.5  and  i  part  sulphuric  acid  of  sp.  gr.  1.84.  The 


226  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

cotton,  a  hexanitrated  cellulose,  is  the  most  highly  nitrated  product, 

cotton  is  immersed  in  this  mixture  for  24  hours  at  a  temperature  not  above  10°  C.; 
loo  parts  of  cellulose  yield  about  175  parts  of  the  nitrate.  This  nitrate  is  insolu- 
ble in  alcohol,  ether,  or  in  mixtures  of  both,  in  glacial  acetic  acid,  or  methyl  alco- 
hol; slowly  soluble  in  acetone.  Ordinary  guncotton  may  contain  as  much  as 
12  per  cent,  of  nitrates  soluble  in  ether-alcohol  mixture. 

Cellulose  pettanitrate,  Ci2HiSO5(NO3)5,  is  prepared  by  dissolving  guncotton 
(the  hexanitrate)  in  nitric  acid  at  80°  to  90°  C.,  and  precipitating  by  the  addition 
of  sulphuric  acid  after  cooling  to  o°  C.  The  precipitate  consists  of  the  penta- 
nitrate,  and  is  purified  by  washing  with  water,  then  with  alcohol,  dissolving  in 
ether-alcohol,  and  reprecipitating  with  water.  The  pentanitrate  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol,. is  slightly  soluble  in  acetic  acid,  and  readily  so  in  ether-alcohol;  by  treat - 
mc  n  with  strong  caustic  potash  it  is  converted  into  the  dinitrate. 

Cellulose  le'.ra-  and  tri-nitrates  (collodion  pyroxylin)  are  formed  simultaneously 
when  cotton  is  treated  with  a  more  dilute  acid  and  at  higher  temperatures,  and 
for  a  shorter  time  than  in  the  preparation  of  the  hexanitrate.  As  these  two 
nitrates  are  soluble  to  the  same  extent  in  ether-alcohol,  acetic  ether,  and  methyl 
alcohol,  it  is  not  possible  to  separate  them.  When  treated  with  a  mixture  of  con- 
centrated nitric  and  sulphuric  acids,  they  are  both  converted  into  penta-  and 
hexanitrates;  caustic  potash  and  ammonia  convert  them  into  the  dinitrate. 

Cellulose  dinitrate,  Cj8Hj3O8(NO3)2,  is  formed  through  a  partial  saponifica- 
tion  of  the  higher  nitrates  by  the  action  of  caustic  potash,  and  also  by  the  action 
of  hot  dilute  nitric  acid  on  cellulose.  The  dinitrate  is  very  soluble  in  ether- 
alcohol,  acetic  ether,  and  in  absolute  alcohol. 

Vielle  (Compt.  Rend.,  vol.  95,  p.  132)  has  studied  the  nitration  of  cotton  with 
different  concentrations  of  acid  with  the  following  results: 
Nitrif/cid.  Product  Obtained. 

f  Structural  features  of  cotton  preserved;    soluble 
i-502\   J       in  acetic  ether;  not  in  ether-alcohol: 
J'497      I  C24H20(N03H)10010. 

i  496 1     f  Appearances  unchanged;    soluble  in  ether-alco- 
1.492  \  •{       h°l»  collodion  cotton : 

Cr4H22(N03H)901I,     C24H24(NO3H)8OI2. 
Fibre  still  unresolved;  soluble  as  above,  but  solu- 
tions more  gelatinous  and  thready: 

C:4H26(N03H)7013. 


1.476-1 
1.472  \ 
1.469 J 


Dissolve  cotton  to  viscous  solution;  products 
precipitated  by  water;  gelatinized  by  acetic 
ether;  not  by  ether-alcohol: 

I  C24H28(N03H)6On. 

1.463!     f  Friable  pulp;   blued  strongly  by  iodin  in  potas- 
i  460  '  sium  iodide  solution;   insoluble  in  alcohol  sol- 

vents : 


i -455 

«-45°J    L          C24H30(N03H)S0U,     C24HS2(NO3H)4O16. 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.         227 


and  is  used  as  a  basis  of  many  explosives.  Soluble  pyroxylin  is 
a  trinitrated  cellulose;  its  solution  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether 
is  called  collodion  and  is  employed  in  surgery  and  photography. 
Another  derivative,  supposed  to  be  a  tetranitrated  cellulose,  is* 
also  soluble  in  ether-alcohol,  and  its  solution  has  been  utilized 
for  the  production  of  lustra-cellulose  filaments.  By  dissolving 
nitrated  cellulose  in  molten  camphor  a  substance  known  as 
celluloid  is  formed. 

The  action  of  hydrofluoric  acid  on  cotton  and  other  vegetable 
fibres  appears  to  be  a  peculiar  one;  a  transparent,  tough,  flexible 
water-proof  material  being  obtained.  The  product  does  not 
appear  to  resemble  parchment  obtained  by  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  used  as  an  insulating  material  and  for  making  the 
carbon  filaments  of  incandescent  electric  lamps. 

Organic  acids  in  solution,  even  when  moderately  concentrated, 
do  not  appear  to  have  any  injurious  action  on  cotton.  The  non- 
volatile acids,  however,  such  as  oxalic,  tartaric,  and  citric  acids, 
when  allowed  to  dry  into  the  fibre,*  act  much  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  mineral  acids,  especially  at  elevated  temperatures.!  Acetic 

*  The  effect  of  certain  acids  on  the  strength  of  cotton  is  an  important  factor  in 
printing.  The  following  table  shows  the  degree  of  weakening  caused  by  various 
acids,  strips  of  calico  being  printed  with  tragacanth  pastes  containing  20  grams 
of  oxalic  acid  per  litre,  or  an  equivalent  amount  of  the  other  acids,  and  in  the 
first  case  exposed  for  four  hours  to  the  ordinary  temperature,  and  in  the  second 
case  steamed  for  one  hour : 


Acid. 

I. 

II. 

Oxalic  
Tartaric  
Ortho-phosphoric  

25      P 
5 
i-S 
&•$ 
3S-o 
27 

sr  ce 

m. 

25      P 
10 

15 
35 
35-5 
28 

er  c( 

nt. 

i 

Pyro-phosphoric  
Phosphorous  

Under  similar  conditions  sulphocyanic  acid  has  but  a  very  slight  tendering  effect 
on  printed  cotton,  even  under  the  influence  of  steaming,  but  under  the  influence 
of  dry  hot  air  its  tendering  action  is  greater  than  that  of  oxalic  acid. 

t  The  destructive  action  of  these  acids  on  the  cotton  fibre  is,  perhaps,  not 
so  much  of  a  chemical  nature  as  mechanical,  it  being  caused  by  the  acids  crystal- 
lizing within  the  fibre  and  thus  breaking  the  cell-wall.  A  dry  heat,  for  instance, 
in  connection  with  these  acids  is  much  more  injurious  than  a  moist  heat,  a  fact 


228  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

acid,  however,  being  volatile,  exerts  no  destructive  action;  hence 
this  latter  acid  is  particularly  suitable  for  use  in  the  dyeing  and 
printing  of  cotton  goods,  where  the  use  of  an  acid  is  requisite.* 

Tannic  acid,  unlike  other  acids,  exhibits  quite  an  affinity  for 
cotton,  the  .latter  being  capable  of  absorbing  as  much  as  7  to  10 
per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  tannic  acid  from  an  aqueous  solution. 
Advantage  is  taken  of  this  fact  in  the  mordanting  of  cotton  with 
tannic  acid  and  tannins  for  the  dyeing  and  printing  of  basic 
colors.  Cotton  exhibits  a  similar  attraction  for  tungstic  acid; 
the  expense  of  this  latter  compound,  however,  precludes  its 
adoption  as  a  mordanting  agent. 

Though  acids,  in  general,  have  such  an  injurious  action  on 
cotton,  alkalies,  on  the  other  hand,  are  harmless  under  ordinary 
conditions.  Dilute  solutions  of  either  the  carbonated  or  caustic 
alkalies,  even  at  a  boiling  temperature,  if  air  is  excluded,  have 
no  injurious  effect  on  cotton.  In  the  presence  of  air  alkaline 
solutions  cause  an  hydrolysis  of  the  cellulose  in  a  manner  similar 
to  acids,  with  the  result  that  the  fibre  is  seriously  weakened. 
The  prolonged  action  of  alkalies  in  the  presence  of  air  is  an 
important  one  to  bear  in  mind  in  the  operations  of  bleaching,  dye- 
ing, or  mercerizing.  Boiling  solutions  of  dilute  alkalies  dissolve 
or  emulsify  the  waxy  and  fatty  impurities  encrusting  the  cotton 
fibre,  hence  these  reagents  are  largely  employed  in  the  scouring 
of  cotton  goods. 

The  action  of  alkaline  solutions  at  high  temperatures  (above 
1 00°  C.)  on  cotton  appears,  however,  to  be  a  destructive  one. 
Tauss  has  shown  that  if  cotton  be  digested  with  solutions  of 
caustic  soda  under  pressure,  the  fibre  is  attacked  and  converted 


which  is  of  much  importance  in  the  drying  of  cotton  prints,  where  the  above- 
mentioned  acids  may  have  been  used. 

*  Oxalic  acid  appears  to  have  a  peculiar  effect  on  cotton;  it  has  been  noticed 
that  if  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  be  printed  with  a  thickened  solution  of  oxalic  acid, 
dried,  and  hung  in  a  cool  place  for  about  twelve  hours,  and  then  well  washed, 
the  printed  parts  exhibit  a  direct  affinity  towards  the  basic  dyes.  The  cotton 
so  treated  does  not  become  greatly  tendered  or  otherwise  changed.  Towards 
substantive  dyes  it  exhibits  considerably  less  attraction  than  ordinary  cotton, 
while  with  alizarin  dyes  it  is  partially  reactive.  Tartaric  and  citric  acids  do  not 
produce  the  same  effect,  nor  does  the  neutral  or  acid  oxalate  of  potassium. 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.         229 


into  soluble  products;  the  degree  of  decomposition  depending 
on  the  pressure  and  the  strength  of  the  alkaline  liquor,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  following  table: 


Pressure. 

Strength  of  Alkali. 

3  Per  Cent.  NaaO. 

8  Per  Cent.  Na2O. 

Per  Cent,  of  Cotton  Dissolved. 

i  atmosphere  
5  atmospheres  

10                  "               

12.  I 

15-4 
20.3 

22.  O 
58.0 

59-° 

Solutions  of  ammonia  do  not  act  on  cotton  until  quite  high 
temperatures  are  reached.  According  to  the  experiments  of  L. 
Vignon,  at  200°  C.  ammonia  reacts  with  cotton  cellulose,  the 
result  being  the  evident  formation  of  an  amido-cellulose  com- 
pound, the  product  evincing  a  greatly  increased  degree  of  absorp- 
tion for  dyesiuff  solutions,  especially  for  the  acid  coloring-matters, 
somewhat  after  the  manner  of  animal  fibres. 

This  action  of  alkaline  solutions  on  cotton  under  h?gh  pressure 
has  an  important  bearing  on  the  bleaching  of  this  fibre,  where  it 
is  subjected  to  such  action  by  boiling  with  alkalies  in  pressure 
kiers.  This  phase  of  the  question  does  not  appear  to"  have  re- 
ceived much  attention  from  either  the  practical  bleacher  or  the 
theoretical  chemist,  but  it  would  seem  to  be  worthy  of  some  degree 
of  intelligent  research  on  the  part  of  both. 

Concentrated  solutions  of  caust'c  alkalies  have  a  peculiar 
effect  on  cotton;  the  fibre  swells  up,  becomes  cylindrical  and 
semi-transparent,  while  the  interior  canal  is  almost  entirely  oblit- 
erated by  the  swelling  of  the  cefl-walTs.  There  is  a  marked  gain 
in  weight  and  strength,  while  the  affinity  of  the  cotton  for  coloring- 
matters  is  materially  increased.  This  effect  was  first  noticed  by 
John  Mercer  in  1844,  and  the  reaction  forms  the  basis  of  the 
modern  process  of  mercerizing,  under  which  title  a  more  com- 
plete and  extensive  discussion  of  this-  reaction  will  be  found. 
Solutions  of  sodium  sulphide  appear  to  have  no  immediate  ten- 
dering action  on  cotton,  even  at  a  boiling  temperature.  If  the 


230  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES, 

sodium  sulphide  is  dried  into  the  fibre  after  about  six  weeks,  the 
cotton  shows  a  loss  in  strength  of  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  Also, 
when  sodium  sulphide  is  dried  into  the  fibre  at  100°  C.,  the  tender- 
ing amounts  to  from  10  to  20  per  cent.  Cotton  containing  copper 
sulphide  or  iron  sulphide  shows  no  appreciable  amount  of  tender- 
ing. When  cotton  is  impregnated  with  sulphur  and  exposed  to  a 
damp  atmosphere  for  several  weeks,  its  tensile  strength  is  reduced 
by  about  one-half.  This  is  perhaps  due  to  the  oxidation  of  the 
sulphur  into  sulphurous  and  sulphuric  acids. 

If  cotton,  or  other  forms  of  cellulose,  be  treated  with  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  caustic  soda  to  which  a  small  amount  of  carbon 
disulphide  has  been  added,  the  fibres  swell  up,  become  disinte- 
grated, and  finally  form  a  gelatinous  mass.  This  latter  is 
soluble  in  a  large  amount  of  water,  producing  a  very  viscous 
solution,  technically  known  as  viscose.  From  this  solution  hydro- 
cellulose  may  be  precipitated  by  sulphurous  acid  gas,  as  well  as 
by  various  other  reagents.  Precipitation  also  occurs  by  simply 
allowing  the  solution  to  stand  for  some  time,  in  which  case  the 
hydrated  cellulose  separates  out  as  a  jelly-like  mass.  Viscose  has 
received  several  commercial  applications,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  more  especially  the  use  of  its  solutions  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  lustra-cellulose  filaments. 

Though  cotton  does  not  show  nearly  the  same  degree  of  affin- 
ity for  acids  and  alkalies  as  do  the  animal  fibres,  nevertheless  it 
has  been  shown  that  cotton  does  absorb  both  acids  and  alkalies 
from  their  solutions,  even  when  cold  and  dilute.  The  ratio  of 
absorption  appears  to  be  3  molecular  parts  of  acid  to  10  molecular 
parts  of  caustic  alkali.*  Yignon,  by  a  study  of  the  thermochem- 
ical  reactions  of  cotton,  has  shown  that  when  this  fibre  is  treated 
with  acids  or  alkalies  a  liberation  of  heat  takes  place,f  from  which 
fact  it  would  appear  that  cotton  exhibits  in  some  degree  the 
properties  of  a  very  weak  acid  and  a  still  weaker  base. 


*  See  p.  2 1 5. 

"j"  Vignon  gives  the  following  results  in  calories  per  100  grams  of  cotton: 
KOH.       NaOH.         HC1.         HzSO*. 

Raw  cotton 1.30         1.08         0.65         0.60 

Bleached  cotton 2.27         2.20         0.65         0.58 


CHEMICAL   PROPERTIES  OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.        231 

Strong  oxidizing  agents,  such  as  chromic  acid,  permanganates, 
chlorin,  etc.,  in  concentrated  solutions,  readily  attack  cotton, 
converting  it  into  oxycellulosc.  This  substance  appears  to  pos- 
sess an  increased  affinity  for  dyestuffs,  but  it  is  of  a  structureless 
and  brittle  nature,  hence  its  formation  greatly  tenders  the  fibre. 
It  is  said  that  oxycellulose  is  indifferent  towards  the  tetrazo 
dyestuffs;  and,  in  consequence,  these  may  be  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  detecting  the  presence  of  oxycellulose  in  cotton  mate- 
rials. 

In  its  action  towards  various  metallic  salts  cotton  is  very  neu- 
tral, thereby  differing  considerably  from  both  wool  and  silk.  If 
the  salts,  however,  are  present  in  a  very  basic  condition,  cotton 
is  capable  of  decomposing  them  and  loosely  fixing  the  metallic 
hydroxide.  Many  salts,  especially  those  of  an  acid  nature,  will 
tender  the  cotton  fibre,  probably  due  to  the  liberation  and  drying- 
in  of  the  acid.  Consequently,  such  salts  should  be  avoided  or 
used  very  carefully  with  cotton,  and  any  excess  should  be  thor- 
oughly eliminated  by  subsequent  washing  before  the  material 
dries. 

In  its  behavior  towards  coloring-matters  cotton  differs  most 
markedly  from  the  animal  fibres.  Of  the  natural  dyestuffs,  only 
a  few  color  the  cotton  fibre  without  a  mordant;  with  the  coal-tar 
colors,  cotton  exhibits  no  affinity  for  most  of  the  acid  or  basic 
dyes,  and  these  can  only  be  applied  on  a  suitable  mordant.  The 
substantive  colors,  however,  are  readily  dyed  on  cotton,  in  a 
direct  manner,  and  since  their  introduction  the  methods  of  cotton 
dyeing  have  been  practically  revolutionized. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  whether  the  phenomena 
of  dyeing  with  reference  to  cotton  are  of  a  physical  or  chemical 
nature.  Unlike  the  animal  fibres,  cotton  does  not  possess  groups 
of  a  very  distinctly  active  chemical  nature;  that  is  to  say,  it  cannot 
be  said  to  noticeably  exhibit  either  acid  or  basic  properties.  The 
only  groups  in  cotton  cellulose  which  may  be  considered  chemic- 
ally active  are  the  hydroxyl  groups.  These  can  be  rendered  in- 
active by  acetyla-tion,  and  it  has  been  shown*  that  cotton  so 

*  Suida,  F&rber-Zeit.,  1905 


232  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

treated  does  not  exhibit  any  difference  in  dyeing  properties  from 
ordinary  cotton,  and  this  leads  us  to  the  assumption  that  in  the 
case  of  cotton,  the  phenomena  of  dyeing  rest  on  a  physical  dis- 
sociation of  the  dyestuff  molecule  determined  by  the  fibre;  that 
is  to  say,  the  process  of  dyeing  with  reference  to  cotton  must  be 
attributed  (hi  great  measure  at  least)  to  the  action  of  dissociation, 
dissolution,  and  capillarity;  in  other  words,  to  purely  physical  or 
physico-chemical  causes;  and  purely  chemical  reactions,  if  they 
come  into  play  at  all,  are  of  secondary  importance. 

Though  resistant  to  the  action  of  moths  and  insects  in  general, 
cotton  is  liable  to  undergo  fermentation,*  as  is  evidenced  by  the 
formation  of  mildew  f  on  cotton  fabrics  stored  in  damp  places. 


*  According  to  Knecht  {Jour.  Soc.  Dyers  &  Co/.,  1905,  p.  189),  human 
saliva  has  a  peculiar  and  distinct  effect  on  cotton.  His  experiments  show  that  a 
piece  of  bleached  calico,  saturated  with  saliva,  will  absorb  considerably  more 
dyestuff  on  dyeing  with  substantive  colors  than  untreated  cotton.  This  is  not 
due  to  mucus,  or  to  any  of  the  salts  contained  in  the  saliva,  but  probably  to  the 
enzyme  ptyalin,  since  the  saliva  loses  the  power  of  producing  the  effect  after 
boiling.  Of  other  enzymes,  diastase  was  also  found  to  have  some  action,  though 
very  slight.  This  action  of  saliva  on  cotton  may  explain  some  faults  arising  in 
dyeing  cotton  pieces. 

f  Mildew  does  not  appear  as  often  on  white  and  colored  as  on  gray  (unbleached) 
cloth,  which,  being  sized,  is  much  more  liable  to  this  defect.  The  essential  con- 
ditions for  the  production  of  mildew  appear  to  be  (i)  dampness,  (2)  lack  of  fresh 
air,  (3)  the  presence  of  certain  bodies  (such  as  flour,  etc.)  suitable  as  foods  for 
the  fungi.  The  more  common  varieties  of  mildew  are: 

(1)  Green  mildew,  a  common  form  generally  due  to  Penicillium  glaucum  and 
Aspergittus  glaucus,  which  are  closely  allied,  but  which  are  distinguishable  from 
the  way  in  which  the  spores   are  attached.     In   the  former  the  spores  are  on 
branches,  while  in  the  latter  they  are  attached  to  the  head;   they  grow  rapidly 
and  generally  form  rather  large  patches. 

(2)  Brown  mildew  is  frequently  found  on  cloth,  and  is  due  io  various  species 
of  •  fungi,  of  which  Puccinia  graminis  is  perhaps  the  most  common.     This  and 
the  brick-red  mildew  noticed  below  are  frequently  mistaken  for  iron  stains,  the 
color  of  which  they  closely  resemble.     They  are  easily  distinguished  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  occur  in  small  spots,  often  of  a  ring  shape,  and  they  do  not  give 
the  Prussian-blue  test. 

(3)  Brick-red  mildew  is  not  very  frequent  and  the  fungus  which  causes  it  has 
not  been  definitely  recognized;    it  grows  rapidly  at  first,  but  has  no  great  vitality 
and  after  a  time  the  development  stops. 

(4)  Yellow  mildew,  a  common  variety  occurring  in  large  irregular  patches  and 
spots.     Not  requiring  much  air  for  its  development,  it  extends  much  more  into 


CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES   OF  COTTON;    CELLULOSE.         233 


Though  this  fermentation  is  often  induced  by  the  presence  of 
more  or  less  starchy  matter  contained  in  the  sizing  materials 
used  in  finishing  the  goods,  yet  pure  cellulose  itself  can  also  be 
fermented,  and  Omeliansky  has  succeeded  in  isolating  the  par- 
ticular bacillus  which  destroys  cellulose.- 

There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to  whether  the  various 
treatments  to  which  cotton  is  subjected  during  the  process  of 
bleaching  has  any  deleterious  effect  on  the  strength  of  the  fibre. 
In  this  connection  O'Neill  gives  the  following  interesting  results, 
made  to  determine  the  tensile  strength  of  cotton-threads  before 
and  after  bleaching: 


Average  Weight  Required  to  Break 
a  Single  TKread. 

Before  Bleaching. 

After  Bleaching. 

No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 

i  cloth,  weft-threads  
i     '       warp-threads  

2       "                                            .... 
2       "                    "                      .... 

1714  grains 
3  H° 
34°7 
3512 

2785  grains 

2020         " 

3708      " 
4025 

i 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  two  cases  out  of  three  the  warp-threads 
are  stronger  than  before,  and  it  may  be  safely  concluded  that  the 
tensile  strength  of  cotton  yarn  is  not  injured  by  careful  though 
thorough  bleaching,  and  probably  it  may  be  strengthened  by  the 
wetting  and  pressure,  causing  a  more  complete  and  effective  bind- 
ing of  the  separate  cotton  fibres,  the  twisting  together  of  which 
makes  the  yarn  stronger. 

the  folds  of  the  cloth  than  do  most  of  the  other  kinds.  It  is  a  yellow  variety  of 
the  Aspergillus  glaucus  (Eurotium)  and  may  also  be  Oidium  aurantiacum. 

(5)  Black  mildew,  due  often  to  fungi  belonging  to  the  genus  Tilletia,  is  occa- 
sionally found;  it  is  very  rapid  in  growth. 

(6)  Purple  mildew  is  rare. 

(7)  Bright  pink  mildew  is  also  rare. 

(Textile  Mercury,  1906.) 


CHAPTER  XII. 

MERCERIZED   COTTON. 

i.  Mercerizing  is  a  term  applied  to  that  process  whereby 
cotton  is  treated  with  concentrated  caustic  alkalies.  In  its 
strictest  significance,  however,  it  refers  most  directly  to  the 
process  of  giving  cotton  a  high  degree  of  lustre  by  subjecting 
it  simultaneously  to  the  chemical  action  of  caustic  alkalies  and 
the  mechanical  action  of  tension  sufficient  to  prevent  contraction. 
The  process  is  named  from  John  Mercer,  who  first  discovered 
the  effect  of  strong  solutions  of  caustic  alkalies  on  cotton  in  the 
year  1844.  It  was  not  until  the  last  decade,  however,  that  the 
process  attained  any  degree  of  commercial  success;  but  during 
the  last  few  years  it  has  given  practically  a  new  fibre  to  the  textile 
industry. 

Mercerizing,  in  its  essential  meaning,  relates  to  the  action  of 
certain  chemicals  on  cellulose,  whereby  the  latter  is  changed  to 
a  product  known  as  cellulose  hydrate ;  though,  technically,  the 
term  has  come  to  mean  the  process  concerned  with  the  imparting 
of  a  silk-like  lustre  to  the  fibre.  As  generally  understood,  it 
consists  briefly  in  impregnating  cotton  yarn  or  cloth  with  a  rather 
concentrated  cold  solution  of  caustic  soda  and  subsequently 
washing  out  the  caustic  liquor  with  water,  the  material  being 
either  held  in  a  state  of  tension  during  the  time  it  is  treated  with 
the  caustic  alkali  in  order  to  prevent  contraction,  or  stretched 
back  to  its  original  length  after  treatment  with  the  alkali,  but 
previous  to  washing.  In  either  case,  the  material  must  be  in  a 
state  of  tension  during  the  process  of  washing.  There  are  two 
separate  phases  of  the  mercerizing  process  represented  in  the 
above  operations  which  must  be  separately  understood  in  order 

234 


MERCERIZED  COTTON.  235 

io  comprehend  the  exact  nature  of  the  change  which  takes  place 
in  the  appearance  of  the  fibre;  the  one  is  the  chemical  action  of 
the  caustic  soda,  and  the  other  is  the  mechanical  effect  brought 
about  by  the  tension.  The  action  of  the  caustic  alkali  is  to  effect 
a  chemical  transformation  in  the  substance  of  the  fibre,  a  further 
chemical  reaction  taking  place  when  this  product  is  treated  with 
water.  As  already  pointed  out  (p.  219),  cellulose  has  the  prop- 
erty of  combining  with  caustic  soda  to  form  a  product  known  as 
alkali  cellulose,  C^H^oOio'.NaOH.  The  formation  of  this  com- 
pound does  not  appear  to  disintegrate  the  organic  structure  of 
the  fibre-cell,  provided  the  proper  conditions  are  maintained. 
The  alkali-cellulose,  however,  is  apparently  a  rather  feebly  com- 
bined molecular  aggregate,  and  does  not  exhibit  much  stability 
towards  reagents  in  general.  It  is  even  decomposed  by  the  action 
of  water,  the  effect  of  the  latter  being  to  disrupt  the  bond  of  molec- 
ular union  between  the  alkali  and  cellulose,  with  the  consequent 
re-formation  of  caustic  soda  and  the  introduction  of  water  into  the 
cellulose  molecule.  This  latter  substance,  which  may  be  termed 
cellulose  hydrate,  forms  the  chemical  basis  of  mercerized  cotton. 
The  theory  that  caustic  soda  effects  a  true  chemical  combination 
with  cellulose  is  somewhat  supported  by  the  fact  that  mercerized 
cotton  undergoes  chemical  changes  to  which  ordinary  cotton  is 
not  susceptible.  For  instance,  the  former  is  much  more  readily 
dissolved  by  a  solution  of  ammoniacal  copper  oxide;  it  is  chem- 
ically reactive  with  carbon  disulphide  with  the  formation  of 
soluble  cellulose  thiocarbonates;  alkali-cellulose  also  reacts  with 
benzoyl  chloride  and  acetic  anhydride,  giving  rise  to  cellulose 
benzoates  and  acetates.  The  nature  of  the  chemical  change 
in  mercerized  cotton,  however,  is  rather  ill  defined;  it  no 
doubt  can  be  included  under  that  class  of  reactions  which 
stands  somewhat  midway  between  ordinary  physical  and  chem- 
ical changes,  and  is  to  be  particularly  observed  in  connection 
with  those  bodies  possessing  a  high  degree  of  molecular  com- 
plexity, such  as  various  colloidal  substances  and  the  large  num- 
ber of  naturally  occurring  carbohydrates,  starches,  gums,  etc. 
The  fact  that  there  is  no  evidence  of  disorganization  in  the  fibre- 
cell,  as  may  be  observed  from  its  physical  properties  and  micro- 


236  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

scopic  appearance,  is  a  strong  argument  against  true  chemical 
change,  which  would  necessitate  a  rearrangement  in  the  atomic 
grouping  in  the  substance  of  the  fibre.  This  would  result  in  a 
decomposition  of  its  organized  structure,  which  would  at  once 
be  manifested  in  a  decrease  in  the  tensile  strength,  and  an  actual 
breaking  down  of  the  fibre  itself.  But  mercerized  cotton  shows 
no  such  change;  on  the  other  hand,  its  tensile  strength  is  con- 
siderably increased,  and  the  fibre-cell  shows  no  tendency  towards 
physical  decomposition. 

When  the  cotton  fibre  is  immersed  in  a  concentrated  solution 
of  caustic  soda  it  undergoes  a  peculiar  physical  modification;  it 
appears  to  absorb  the  alkali,  swelling  to  a  cylindrical  formi,  so 
that  it  presents  more  the  appearance  of  a  hair  than  a  flat  ribbon; 
the  fibre  also  untwists  itself  and  becomes  much  straighter,  at 
the  same  time  shrinking  considerably  in  length.  The  internal 
portion  of  the  fibre  acquires  a  gelatinous  appearance,  becom- 
ing somewhat  translucent  to  light,  though  it  is  firm  in  structure; 
the  surface  of  the  fibre  shows  a  wrinkled  appearance  transversely, 
due  to  a  somewhat  unequal  distension  of  the  inner  part.  There 
is  a  small  degree  of  lustre  on  portions  of  the  surface,  but,  due  to 
the  uneven  stretching  and  wrinkling  of  the  external  superficies, 
the  smooth  lustrous  portions  are  irregular  in  occurrence  and  not 
very  extensive  in  area.  The  fibre  also  shows  a  slight  increase  in 
weight.  These  changes  in  the  physical  appearance  of  the  fibre 
are  accompanied  by  a  remarkable  increase  in  the  tensile  strength, 
amounting  hi  most  cases  to  as  much  as  from  30  to  50  per  cent. ; 
the  fibre  also  acquiring  a  greater  power  of  absorption  towards  many 
solutions,  most  notably  those  of  dyestuffs.  The  increase  in  tensile 
strength  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  mercerizing  causes  the 
inner  structure  of  the  fibre  to  become  more  solidly  bound  together 
by  a  filling  up  of  the  interstitial  spaces  between  the  molecular 
components  of  the  cell- wall.  In  this  manner  the  fibre  as  a  whole 
is  given  a  greater  degree  of  solidity;  the  internal  strain  between  the 
cell-elements  (which  must  be  quite  considerable  after  the  drying 
out  and  shrinking  of  the  ripened  fibre)  is  lessened  no  doubt,  and 
hence  adds  to  the  unified  strength  of  the  fibre.  From  the  fact 
that  the  fibre  shrinks  in  length  in  mercerizing,  it  is  probable  that 


MERCERIZED   COTTON.  237 

the  cell- elements  have  contracted  transversely  on  the  collapse  of 
the  fibre  canal,  and,  on  being  distended  again  by  the  action  of  the 
caustic  alkali,  these  cell-elements  become  shortened  longitudinally 
and  are  more  tightly  packed  together.  The  increased  affinity  for 
dyestuffs  exhibited  by  mercerized  cotton  is  not  to  be  considered  a 
new  inherent  property  of  the  modified  cellulose  induced  by  a 
change  in  its  chemical  composition.  It  is  no  doubt  a  result  of 
the  modified  physical  structure  of  the  fibre  itself;  that  is,  when 
the  cell-elements  have  become  distended,  like  a  sponge,,  they  have  a 
greater  power  of  absorption  and  retention  of  liquids  than  when 
in  a  flattened  and  collapsed  condition. 

The  high  lustre  imparted  to  cotton  by  mercerizing  is  brought 
about  by  other  conditions  than  the  mere  action  of  the  caustic 
alkali.*  In  the  swelling  of  the  cell-walls  and  consequent  con- 
traction of  the  fibre,  the  surface  remains  wrinkled  and  uneven, 
due  to  the  unequal  strain  of  expansion.  If,  however,  the  ends  of 
the  fibre  are  fixed,  and  thus  prevented  from  contracting  when 
subjected  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  alkali,  the  swelling  of  the 
cell- walls  will  cause  the  surface  to  become  smooth  and  even,  and 
similar  to  a  polished  surface  capable  of  reflecting  light  with  but 
little  scattering  of  the  rays.  Another  condition  which  also  has 
much  to  do  with  the  production  of  the  lustrous  appearance 
is  no  doubt  to  be  found  in  the  physical  modification  of  the  cell 
elements  themselves.  When  the  fibre  swells  up  under  the  action 
of  the  caustic  alkali,  its  substance  becomes  gelatinous  and  trans- 
lucent, and  this  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  optical  properties  of 
the  fibre,  and  enhances  the  lustre  considerably  by  lessening  the 
proportion  of  light  absorbed.f 


*  It  has  been  claimed  that  the  mercerizing  effect  may  be  obtained  without 
tension  by  the  addition  of  glucose  to  the  alkaline  bath.  The  addition  of  other 
substances,  such  as  ether,  aluminium  chloride,  etc.,  have  been  claimed  to  pro- 
duce the  same  result.  But  it  is  to  be  doubted  whether  a  high  lustre  is  obtained 
by  any  of  these  methods. 

f  Dr.  Frankel  has  advanced  the  opinion  that  the  high  lustre  exhibited  by 
mercerized  cotton  is  mainly  due  to  the  fibre  having  lost  its  thin  cuticle  during 
the  process.  But  this  theory  is  overthrown  by  the  fact  that  if  mercerized  cotton 
is  again  subjected  to  the  action  ot  cold  strong  caustic  soda,  it  contracts  nearly  as 
much  as  raw  cotton  would  do,  and  loses  its  silky  lustre  entirely. 


238  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Considerable  difference  is  to  be  observed  in  the  strength 
and  elasticity  of  cotton  mercerized  without  tension  and  that 
mercerized  with  tension.  Buntrock,  in  a  research  on  this  subject, 
found  that  cotton  yarn  mercerized  without  tension  showed  an 
increase  of  68  per  cent,  in  its  tensile  strength,*  whereas  the  same 
cotton  mercerized  under  tension  gave  an  increase  of  only  35 
per  cent.  With  respect  to  the  elasticity  of  the  yarn,  the  same 
chemist  ascertained  that  the  untreated  cotton  employed  in  his 
experiments  stretched  n  per  cent,  of  its  length  before  breaking; 
the  amount  for  cotton  mercerized  without  tension  was  1 7  per  cent., 
an  increase  of  54  per  cent.;  cotton  mercerized  under  tension 
showed  no  increase  in  elasticity  at  all,  and  could  only  be  stretched 
the  original  n  per  cent,  before  breaking.  These  figures,  of 
course,  are  not  absolute  for  all  varieties  of  cotton,  but  will  vary 
within  considerable  limits,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the 
raw  cotton  employed.  Attention  must  also  be  drawn  to  the  fact 
that  the  figures  for  the  tensile  strength  and  elasticity  quoted  above 
were  obtained  by  using  spun  yarn  and  are  not  based  on  the  single 
fibre.  Of  course  it  is  the  strength  of  the  yarn  which  is  desired  in 
practice,  but  the  figure  for  this  is  not  necessarily  that  for  the  fibre 
itself.  In  mercerizing  yarn  or  cloth,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  fibres  shrink  considerably,  and  in  doing  so  become  more 
closely  knit  together;  therefore  the  increase  in  tensile  strength,  as 
ascertained  by  Buntrock,  represents  really  the  greater  coherence  of 
the  fibres  to  one  another  rather  than  an  increase  in  the  strength 
of  the  individual  fibre,  because  in  breaking  a  yarn  spun  from  a 
large  number  of  fibres  there  is  little  or  no  actual  breaking  of  the 
fibres  themselves,  but  only  a  pulling  apart  of  the  latter.  The 
same  criticism  also  applies  to  a  determination  of  the  elasticity. 
It  would,  perhaps,  be  more  scientific  to  determine  the  breaking 
strain  and  elasticity  of  the  separate  fibres  rather  than  that  of  the 
yarn  or  cloth;  but  it  may  be  assumed,  with  considerable  show 

*  Grosheintz  gives  the  following  results  of  some  experiments  on  the  effect  of 
mercerization  on  the  tensile  strength  of  cotton:  Unmercerized  yarn  broke  with  a 
load  of  356-360  grams;  same  yarn  mercerized  in  cold  aqueous  caustic  soda  (35°  Be.) 
broke  with  530-570  grams;  same  yarn  mercerized  with  cold  alcoholic  caustic 
soda  (10  per  cent.)  broke  with  600-645  grams;  same  (except  that  hot  alcoholic 
caustic  soda  was  used)  broke  with  a  load  of  690-740  grams. 


MERCERIZED   COTTON.  239 

of  reason,  that  these  figures  of  Buntrock  will  represent  a  fair 
relation  between  the  strength  and  elasticity  of  the  individual 
fibres.  The  cause  of  the  lesser  increase  hi  tensile  strength  of 
cotton  mercerized  under  tension  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
same  cotton  mercerized  without  tension  is  to  be  attributed  to  the 
fact  that  when  the  shrinkage  of  the  fibre  is  prevented  by  the 
application  of  an  external  force  the  cell  tissues  cannot  become 
as  compact  as  otherwise,  and  there  is  also  an  internal  strain 
induced  which  lessens  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  fibre.  This 
latter  condition  also  accounts  for  the  lack  of  any  increase  in 
the  elasticity  of  the  mercerized  fibre;  the  fibre  when  mercerized 
under  tension  is  already  in  a  stretched  or  strained  condition,  and 
can  hardly  be  expected  to  give  the  same  degree  of  elasticity  as 
if  tension  had  not  been  applied,  as  a  certain  part  of  its  elasticity 
has  been  used  up  by  the  stretching. 

2.  Conditions  of  Mercerizing. — The  proper  conditions  for 
carrying  into  practical  operation  the  mercerizing  process  are 
simple  and  easily  realized.  Caustic  soda  is  the  most  suitable 
and  convenient  reagent  *  for  bringing  about  the  hydration  of 
the  cellulose;  and  it  has  been  found  that  a  solution  of  density 
between  60°  and  70°  Tw.  gives  the  best  results.  Caustic  soda 
solutions  of  less  density  than  1 5°  Tw.  have  scarcely  any  action  on 
cotton;  the  maximum  effect  appears  to  be  produced  by  a  con- 
centration of  about  60°  Tw.,  though  the  difference  between  this 
and  that  obtained  at  50°  Tw.  is  not  very  marked,  and  even  at 
40°  Tw.  the  mercerizing  action  of  the  alkali  is  quite  strong.  Other 
reagents  than  caustic  alkalies,  however,  may  be  employed  for 
the  hydrolysis  of  the  cotton.  Concentrated  mineral  acids,  such, 
for  instance,  as  sulphuric  acid  at  a  density  of  100°  to  125°  Tw., 
will  bring  about  the  mercerizing  effect  more  or  less  perfectly; 
the  same  is  also  true  of  certain  metallic  salts,  most  notably  the 
chlorides  of  zinc,  calcium,  and  tin.  Beyond  a  mere  theoretical 
and  chemical  interest,  however,  mercerizing  by  means  of  such 

*  Solutions  of  caustic  potash  probably  give  a  somewhat  better  lustre,  and  the 
shrinkage  of  the  fibre  is  less  than  with  caustic  soda.  But  these  small  advantages 
are  not  sufficient  to  compensate  for  the  extra  expense  which  would  be  entailed  by 
the  use  of  caustic  potash. 


240  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

reagents  has  no  practical  value.*  The  addition  of  various  chem- 
icals, however,  has  been  made  to  the  caustic  alkali  solution  with 
beneficial  results.  It  has  been  observed,  for  instance,  that  the 
addition  of  zinc  oxide  has  a  very  marked  effect,  and  probably  is  of 
considerable  value  in  the  practical  working  of  the  process.  The 
addition  of  glycerol,  though  perhaps  of  some  benefit  in  assisting 
in  the  even  and  thorough  penetration  of  the  liquor  into  the  fibre, 
can  hardly  be  said  to  appreciably  modify  the  general  operation  of 
the  alkali.f  Previous  treatment  with  Turkey-red  oil  is  also  of 
benefit  for  the  same  reason;  this  is  also  true  of  such  substances 
as  sodium  silicate,  sodium  aluminate,  and  soap. 

The  temperature  at  which  the  reaction  is  carried  out  should 
not  be  higher  than  the  usual  atmospheric  degree;  in  fact,  it  has 
been  recommended  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  caustic  soda 
solution  by  the  addition  of  ice,  but  this  procedure  does  not  appear 
to  add  anything  of  material  advantage.  At  elevated  temperatures 
caustic  soda  appears  to  exert  a  destructive  effect  on  cotton,  prob- 
ably due  to  the  formation  of  oxycellulose  through  hydrolysis  and 
subsequent  oxidation.  Beyond  a  certain  temperature  the  mer- 
cerizing effect  rapidly  diminishes,  and  at  the  boil  it  is  scarcely 
appreciable.  %  The  best  results  appear  to  be  obtained  when  the 

*  The  use  of  sulphide  of  sodium  or  potassium  instead  of  caustic  alkali  has 
been  proposed;  but  the  process  yields  very  uncertain  results.  It  is  claimed  that 
by  adding  ether  to  the  caustic  soda  solution  good  mercerization  can  be  obtained 
with  but  little  contraction  of  the  fibre,  but  as  this  process  requires  fifty  parts  of 
ether  to  twenty  parts  of  caustic  soda  solution,  the  expense  renders  it  ridiculously 
impracticable.  It  is  said  that  the  addition  of  carbon  bisulphide  to  the  bath  of 
caustic  soda  very  materially  increases  the  lustre;  this  causes  a  disintegration  of 
the  fibre,  however,  through  the  formation  of  viscose  (see  p.  230);  hence  the  treat- 
ment should  be  very  brief,  otherwise  the  cotton  will  be  seriously  tendered.  The 
mercerized  fibre  at  first  is  as  stiff  as  horse-hair,  but  this  effect  can  be  removed  by 
repeated  washing.  The  sulphur  can  be  removed  from  the  cotton  by  washing  in 
a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac,  and  this  should  be  done  before  the  material  is  treated 
with  an  acid  bath,  as  the  latter  would  cause  a  precipitation  of  sulphur  on  the 
fibre  and  so  spoil  the  lustre. 

t  In  the  practical  manipulation  of  the  mercerizing  process  it  has  been  found 
that  the  impregnation  with  caustic  liquor  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  addition  of 
5  per  cent,  of  alcohol  on  the  weight  of  the  caustic  soda. 

%  Beltzer,  however,  claims  that  caustic  soda  solutions  of  65°  Tw.  gave  the 
same  results  in  mercerizing  at  90°  C.  as  at  15°  C.,  but  the  cotton  mercerized  at 
the  higher  temperature  was  much  more  transparent  than  the  other.  The  lustre, 


MERCERIZED  COTTON.  241 

.emperature  is  maintained  at  20°  C.  or  lower.  Above  this  point 
the  contraction  of  the  fibre  (which  may  be  taken  as  a  measure  of 
the  degree  of  mercerization)  grows  less  and  less  with  rise  of  tem- 
perature. 

The  mercerizing  action  of  caustic  soda  is  rather  a  rapid  one, 
as  it  requires  only  a  few  minutes  for  its  completion;  in  fact,  it 
appears  to  take  place  simultaneously  with  the  impregnation  of 
the  fibre  by  the  liquid.  In  ten  minutes  mercerization  is  prac- 
tically complete,  and  lengthening  of  the  time  does  not  increase 
the  mercerizing  effect;  in  fact,  too  long  a  contact  of  the  cotton 
with  the  caustic  alkali  is  to  be  avoided,  especially  if  the  impreg- 
nated fibre  is  exposed  to  the  air,  as  there  is  danger  of  a  breaking 
down  of  the  cellular  structure  and  a  consequent  deterioration  in 
the  strength  of  the  fibre.  The  time  of  immersion  also  appears 
to  be  independent  of  both  the  temperature  and  the  concentration 
of  the  alkali. 

There  are  two  ways  hi  which  the  tension  may  be  applied  in 
mercerizing:  (a)  The  material  may  be  held  in  a  state  of  tension 
during  the  time  of  its  treatment  with  the  caustic  alkali,  and  until 
the  alkali  has  been  washed  out,  in  which  case  the  tension  should 
be  so  maui tamed  that  the  material  cannot  shrink;  (b)  the  ten- 
sion may  be  applied  after  the  material  has  been  treated  with  the 
caustic  alkali,  but  before  the  latter  is  washed  out,  in  which  case 
sufficient  tension  should  be  exerted  to  stretch  the  material  back 
to  its  original  length.  If  the  tension  is  not  applied  until  after  the 
alkali  has  been  removed  from  the  fibre,  no  lustring  effect  is  pro- 
duced; it  is  absolutely  essential  that  the  stretching  should  take 
place  while  the  fibre  is  in  the  form  of  an  alkali-cellulose,  and 
before  it  has  been  converted  by  treatment  with  water  into  hydrated 
cellulose. 

According  to  the  experiments  of  Herbig,  the  stretching  force 
necessary  to  keep  the  cotton  in  its  original  length  during  mercer- 
ization is  only  from  a  quarter  to  a  third  of  that  necessary  to  do 
the  stretching  after  mercerization;  but  there  appears  to  be  no 

however,  was  in  no  wise  inferior.  If  the  mercerization  be  conducted  at  90°  C., 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  cotton  entirely  immersed,  to  guard  it  from  contact  with 
the  air,  otherwise  it  will  become  seriously  weakened. 


242  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

appreciable  difference  in  the  lustre  obtained.  It  would  appear, 
however,  that  stretching  beyond  a  certain  point  ceases  to  increase 
the  lustre,  and  to  obtain  the  maximum  lustring  effect  it  is  not 
necessary  to  stretch  the  cotton  back  to  its  original  length.  Her- 
big  concluded  that  stretching  during  mercerization  is  disadvan- 
tageous, and  it  is  best  to  mercerize  the  yarn  loose,  wring  it,  and 
only  stretch  while  rinsing,  as  the  required  stretching  force  is 
then  quite  small.  The  best  time  for  stretching,  then,  is  during 
the  conversion  of  the  soda-cellulose  into  the  hydrocellulose.  If 
the  stretching  does  not  take  place  until  after  rinsing,  almost 
twice  the  force  is  necessary  to  restore  the  yarn  to  its  original 
length,  as  when  in  contact  with  the  lye,  and  the  lustre  is  decidedly 
inferior.  The  stretching  force  also  appears  to  depend  on  the 
twist,  being  greater  in  proportion  as  the  twist  is  harder.* 

*  Herbig  gives  a  summary  of  his  experimental  results  as  follows : 

1.  Loose  yarn  mercerized  without   any  stretching,   whether  long-  or  short- 
stapled,  and  whether  with  or  without  a  hard  twist,  has  less  lustre  than  unmer- 
cerized  yarn.     But  even  with  a  very  slight  tension  the  lustre  is  greater. 

2.  Both  with  long-  and  short -stapled  cotton  the  lustre  only  becomes  marked 
when  the  stretching  force  is   sufficient   to  bring  the  yarn  back  to  its  original 
length. 

3.  Stretching  beyond  the  original  length  does  not  give  any  increase  in  lustre. 

4.  Considerable  difference  is  observable  in  the  stretching  force  needed  between 
loose  mercerization  followed  by  stretching  in  the  lye,  and  keeping  the  cotton  at 
its  original  length  during  mercerization,  as  in  the  latter  case  only  one-third  to 
one-quarter  of  the  force  is  necessary  to  produce  the  silky  lustre. 

5.  The  stretching  of  the  yarn  requires  only  a  small  force  when  mercerized 
loose  and  if  applied  when  rinsing  is  actually  in  progress;    for  the  best  time  for 
stretching  is  during  the  conversion  of  the  soda-cellulose  into  hydrocellulose. 

6.  When  rinsing  is  over,  twice  as  much  force  is  needed  to  restore  the  original 
length  as  is  required  for  yarn  still  in  contact  with  the  lye;    and  yarns  so  treated 
contract  somewhat  on  drying,  and  exhibit  an  inferior  lustre. 

7.  The  stretching  force  necessary  in  mercerizing  yarn  varies  with  the  twist, 
and  in  general  is  greater  in  proportion  as  the  twist  is  harder. 

8.  The  production  of  the  silky  lustre  does  not  depend  primarily  on  the  amount 
of  force  employed  in  stretching,  as  soft  yarn  with  only  a  small  amount  of  twist 
can  be  lustred. 

9.  The  production  of  the  silky  lustre  is  independent  of  the  cotton  being  long- 
or  short-stapled,  as  short-stapled  American  cotton  with  even  a  loose  twist  can 
be  given  a  silky  lustre. 

10.  The  production  of  a  high  degree  of  lustre  depends  to  a  considerable  extent 
on  the  fineness  of  the  fibre  and  its  natural  lustre.     This  is  apparent  in  mercer- 
izing sea-island  and  Egyptian  cotton. 


MERCERIZED   COTTON  243 

By  the  washing  of  the  material  after  steeping  in  caustic  alkali, 
a  twofold  object  is  gained.  In  the  first  place,  the  action  of  the 
water  on  the  alkali-cellulose  is  to  effect  a  chemical  transforma- 
tion into  cellulose  hydrate,  and  this  action  is  as  really  essential 
to  mercerizing  as  the  action  of  the  caustic  soda  itself.  In  the 
second  place,  the  washing  is  conducted  for  the  purpose  of  remov- 
ing all  excess  of  caustic  alkali  from  the  material.*  Caustic  soda 
is  held  quite  tenaciously  by  cotton,  and  it  requires  a  very  thorough 
and  long-continued  washing  to  remove  the  last  traces  of  this 
compound.  In  order  to  shorten  the  period  required  for  washing, 
it  is  customary  to  give  the  cotton  first  a  rinsing  in  fresh  water, 
after  which  the  tension  may  be  relieved,  and  then  to  wash  with 
acidulated  water,  using  acetic  acid  for  this  purpose. f  On  dry- 
ing the  material  without  further  washing,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  acetic  acid  has  imparted  to  the  cotton  a  certain  degree  of 
"  scroop,"  somewhat  after  the  nature  of  silk,  without  in  any  man- 
ner tendering  the  fibre.  If  other  acids,  and  especially  mineral 
acids,  are  employed  for  washing,  a  subsequent  rinsing  with  fresh 
water  and  soaping  is  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  neutralizing 
all  of  the  acid,  which  would  otherwise  seriously  tender  the  goods 
on  drying,  unless  the  amount  of  acid  employed  is  so  accurately 
adjusted  as  not  to  leave  any  free  acid  in  the  fibre. 

The  character  of  the  fibre  employed  has  a  considerable  influ- 
ence on  the  success  of  the  mercerizing  process.  From  the  very 
nature  of  the  fact  that  a  considerable  degree  of  tension  must  be 
applied  to  the  fibre  during  the  process  in  order  to  obtain  the 
desired  lustre,  it  would  be  natural  to  expect  that  the  longer  the 
staple  of  the  fibre  the  more  readily  would  it  lend  itself  to  the 
requirements  of  the  operation.  And  such,  indeed,  is  found  to 
be  the  case;  the  long- stapled  sea-island  %  and  Egyptian  varieties 

*  When  mercerized  cotton  is  rinsed  with  ammonia  instead  of  water  it  retains 
its  gelatinous,  parchment-like  consistency  throughout  the  rinsing,  and  can  be 
stretched  to  its  original  length  without  breaking.  If  the  cotton  is  then  rinsed  with 
water  while  still  stretched,  the  fibre  regains  its  original  appearance  and  acquires 
a  lustre  as  good  as  that  obtained  in  the  usual  way. 

f  Sulphuric  acid  is  abo  much  used  in  the  washing.  The  acid  employed  is  of 
\°  Be",  strength,  and  at  a  temperature  of  50°  C. 

\  The  preparation  by  combing  of  cotton  for  mercerizafion  has  a  considerable 


244  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

of  cotton  are  those  especially  adapted  for  use  in  the  preparation 
of  mercerized  cotton,  while  the  shorter-stapled  varieties  are  but 
little  employed  for  this  purpose,  as  the  lustre  obtained  with  them 
is  by  no  means  as  pronounced.*  The  quality  of  being  mercerized, 
however,  is  not  an  inherent  property  of  any  special  variety  of 
cotton,  as  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  the  case;  any  variety  of 
cotton  is  capable  of  mercerization,  the  only  essential  being  that 
the  fibre  shall  be  maintained  hi  a  state  of  tension.  In  order  that 
this  condition  be  realized  with  short-stapled  fibres,  the  yarn 
operated  upon  must  be  tightly  twisted  in  order  to  present  suffi- 
cient cohesion  among  the  individual  fibres  to  allow  of  the  high 
tension  required;  this,  on  the  other  hand,  prevents  an  even  and 
thorough  penetration  of  the  caustic  alkali  into  the  substance  of 
the  fibre,  so  that,  on  the  whole,  the  results  obtained  with  short- 
stapled  fibres  are  not  at  all  comparable  with  the  long-stapled 
varieties.f  By  later  improvements  in  the  manner  of  applying 

influence  on  the  subsequent  lustre  of  the  yarn.  Sea-island  cotton  possesses  a 
rather  silky  fibre  to  begin  with,  and  this  is  made  more  adaptable  to  the  production 
of  a  high  lustre  by  combing,  in  which  operation  the  fibres  are  arranged  parallel, 
and  still  further  by  gassing,  which  burns  off  the  minute  outer  hairs.  Yarns  pos- 
sessing considerable  lustre  were  made  in  this  manner  with  fine  counts  of  sea- 
island  cotton  long  before  the  discovery  of  lustring  by  mercerization,  and  it  was 
always  recognized  that  the  parallelism  of  the  fibres  so  obtained  by  combing  (and 
sometimes  a  second  combing)  was  a  great  factor  in  the  production  of  a  silky  and 
lustrous  yarn. 

*  Fabrics  of  vegetable  fibres  (cotton  or  linen)  may  also  be  mercerized  in  pat- 
terns by  printing  on  certain  compounds  capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  the 
caustic  soda  in  the  subsequent  mercerizing  process.  Resists  suitable  for  this 
purpose  are,  in  the  first  place,  organic  compounds  which  readily  coagulate,  such 
as  albumin  and  casern;  and  secondly,  such  salts,  acids,  or  oxides  which  may 
act  by  neutralizing  the  caustic  alkali,  or  from  which  a  hydrate  may  be  precipi- 
tated on  the  fabric  by  its  action.  Such  compounds,  for  instance,  as  the  salts  of 
aluminium  or  zinc,  organic  acids,  and  the  oxides  of  zinc,  aluminium,  or  chromium 
are  quite  suitable.  Very  beautiful  effects  are  said  to  be  obtainable  by  this 
process. 

t  Boucart  gives  the  following  reasons  why  only  long-stapled  cotton,  and  that 
only  in  particular  counts,  gives  good  results  on  mercerization.  A  simple  thread 
consists  of  a  sort  of  twisted  wick  composed  of  nearly  parallel  fibres.  The  twist 
depends,  as  regards  the  angles  it  makes  with  the  length  of  the  thread,  both  upon 
the  kind  of  cotton  and  upon  the  count  of  the  yarn.  Of  the  two  sorts  of  simple 
yarns,  warp- yarns  have  more  cohesion  among  their  elements  than  tensile  strength, 
while  the  reverse  is  the  case  with  weft -yarns.  The  result  is  that  under  gradually 


MERCERIZED  COTTON.  245 

the  tension,  however,  it  would  seem  that,  by  realizing  the  proper 
mechanical  conditions,  even  cotton  of  comparatively  short  staple 
will  be  capable  of  being  mercerized  in  a  more  successful  man- 
ner  than  heretofore.* 

3.  Properties  of  Mercerized  Cotton. — Outside  of  its  high 
lustre  and  some\vhat  increased  tensile  strength,  mercerized  cotton 
exhibits  but  few  apparent  differences  from  the  ordinary  fibre. 

increasing  tension  weft-fibres  slide  past  one  another  without  breaking,  but  warp- 
fibres  break  before  any  such  occurrence  takes  place.  The  degree  of  twist  also 
depends  on  the  mean  staple,  and  the  angle  between  the  thread  and  the  axis  at 
any  point  is  proportional  to  the  length  of  the  thread.  The  degree  of  twist  which 
is  required  to  make  the  cohesion  exceed  the  tensile  strength  depends  naturally 
on  the  strength  of  the  fibre.  The  mercerizing  process  tends  to  shorten  each 
individual  fibre,  and  this  shortening  is  resisted  by  tension  in  the  direction  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  thread.  Hence  the  greater  the  angle  the  thread  makes  with 
that  axis  the  less  is  the  effect  of  the  tension,  and  if  any  portion  of  the  fibre  is  at 
right  angles  to  the  axis  it  is  not  affected  by  the  tension  at  all.  Hence  a  simple 
warp-thread  can  only  receive  a  medium  amount  of  gloss  from  mercerization,  and 
the  less  the  greater  the  twist.  Slightly  twisted  threads  must  give  the  best  lustre, 
but  if  the  cohesion  of  the  fibres  is  less  than  the  contractile  force  exerted  by  the 
lye,  the  fibres  slip  past  each  other  and  no  lustre  is  produced.  But  if  the  weft- 
threads  are  fixed,  as  in  piece  goods,  they  take  a  better  lustre  than  the  warp,  although 
the  latter  is  usually  made  of  better  cotton.  Short-stapled  cotton  lustres  badly 
because  it  must  be  more  tightly  twisted.  The  best  lustre  of  all  is  obtained  with 
twofold  twist,  in  which  the  outer  fibres  lie  parallel  to  the  axis,  and  the  yarn  should 
be  well  singed  to  remove  projecting  fibres. 

*  The  process  of  mercerizing  has  been  subject  of  late  to  a  great  number  of 
patents,  especially  by  Thomas  and  Prevost  of  Germany.  This  has  resulted  in 
considerable  litigation  in  many  countries.  As  far  as  the  actual  chemical  process 
itself  is  concerned,  however,  there  does  not  appear  to  have  been  any  material 
advance  beyond  the  facts  first  discovered  by  Mercer  and  patented  by  him  in  1850; 
with  regard  to  the  element  of  cam-ing  out  the  process  under  tension,  it  may  be 
said  that  this  was  first  described  and  patented  by  Arthur  Lowe  in  1890,  and  this 
included  the  application  of  tension  either  during  or  after  the  treatment  with  caustic 
alkali.  Lowe's  object  in  stretching  the  material,  however,  was  primarily  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  encountered  by  the  shrinkage  of  the  goods,  though  he  does  also  make 
a  specific  statement  that  the  cotton  acquires  an  increased  lustre  and  finish  by 
the  process.  The  only  novelty  put  forward  by  Thomas  and  Prevost  was  the  use 
of  a  particular  kind  of  cotton,  that  is,  long-stapled  varieties;  but  as  both  Mercer's 
and  Lowe's  patents  claim  the  use  of  all  varieties  of  cotton,  it  is  difficult  to  see 
on  what  ground  Thomas  and  Prevost  can  substantiate  their  claim  for  a  patent. 
Patents  covering  the  process  of  mercerizing  appear  to  be  without  foundation; 
though  for  machinery  and  appliances  for  carrying  out  the  same  such  patents 
may  be  perfectly  legitimate.  Recent  decisions  on  this  matter  in  the  United  States 
have  invalidated  Thomas  and  Prevost's  patents  in  this  country. 


246  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Towards  dyestuffs  and  mordants  it  is  rather  more  reactive,  and 
consequently  will  dye  deeper  shades  with  the  same  amount  of 
dyestuff  than  ordinary  cotton;  this  property  is  rather  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  increased  absorptivity  of  the  fibre  than  as  the  result  of  any 
chemical  modification  of  the  cellulose  composing  it;  it  is  also 


FlG.  62. — Mercerized  Cotton.       (  X35O.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

independent  of  the  method  of  mercerizing,  that  is,  whether  accom- 
panied by  tension  or  not. 

Microscopically  the  mercerized  cotton  fibre  exhibits  a  con- 
siderable difference  from  that  of  ordinary  cotton.  Whereas  the 
latter,  when  viewed  under  the  microscope,  appears  as  a  twisted 
flat  band  with  thickened  edges,  and  in  cross-section  like  a  col- 
lapsed tube,  mercerized  cotton  appears  as  a  rather  smooth  cylindri- 
cal fibre,  the  cross-section  of  which  is  more  or  less  circular.  It 
rarely  happens  that  a  fibre  absolutely  loses  all  of  its  twist,  though 
the  degree  of  mercerization  may  be  measured  by  the  freedom  of 
the  fibre  from  irregularities  and  twists.  Under  ordinary  con- 
ditions when  the  cotton  is  mercerized  in  a  state  of  tension,  it  will 


MERCERIZED  COTTON.  247 

also  be  found  that  many  fibres  will  remain  in  their  original  form, 
or  unmercerized,  whereas  others  will  be  mercerized  only  in  portions 
of  their  length.  The  microscopical  examination  of  mercerized 
cotton  is  important  in  determining  just  how  perfectly  the  process 
has  been  carried  out,  which  may  be  judged  by  the  relative  number 
of  unmercerized  or  partially  mercerized  fibres  which  may  be 
present. 

Cotton  may  be  mercerized  either  in  the  form  of  yarn  or  of 
cloth,  and  it  is  principally  done  in  the  unbleached  condition. 
There  has  been  some  dispute  as  to  which  is  best :  to  mercerize  first 
and  bleach,  or  to  bleach  first  and  then  mercerize;  experience, 
however,  appears  to  favor  the  first  method.  In  the  bleaching 
operations,  which  usually  Involve  a  rather  severe  treatment  of  the 
cotton  first  with  moderately  strong  alkalies  and  subsequently 
with  solutions  of  bleaching  powder,  the  fibre  suffers  more  or  less 
chemical  alteration,  so  that  in  the  mercerizing  process  it  can  no 
longer  enter  into  proper  chemical  union  with  the  caustic  soda 
employed ;  and  hence  complete  true  mercerization  is  not  effected. 
Although  cotton  should  be  thoroughly  scoured  ("  boiled  out  ") 
before  being  mercerized,  it  is  best  not  to  use  alkalies  for  the  pur- 
pose, but  to  employ  Turkey-red  oil  (or  other  suitable  sulphated 
oil)  or  soap.  If  bleaching  is  carefully  conducted  after  merceriz- 
ing, the  injury  to  the  lustre  of  the  fibre  is  very  slight.  Mercerized 
cotton  does  not  require  a  prolonged  boiling  in  alkalies  previous 
to  the  operation  of  bleaching  as  with  ordinary  cotton.  To  obtain 
the  best  conditions  for  high  lustre,  yarn  should  be  well  "  gassed  " 
(singed)  before  mercerizing,  as  otherwise  the  external,  hairy  fibres 
remain  loose  and  cannot  be  subjected  to  tension.  As  a  result, 
these  fibres  shrink,  and,  remaining  without  lustre  themselves, 
hide  to  a  certain  extent  the  lustred  surface  of  the  yarn.  More- 
over, caustic  soda  has  a  felting  action  on  these  free  filaments, 
and  felting  is  especially  harmful  to  lustre. 

In  mercerizing  cloth  the  action  taking  place  between  the 
sizing  materials  (always  present  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  in 
cotton  cloth)  and  the  caustic  alkali  is  sufficient  at  times  to  raise 
the  temperature  considerably,  which  may  result  in  a  deficient 
lustre.  In  such  cases  recourse  must  be  had  to  artificial  cooling 


248  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

by  addition  of  ice  or  a  current  of  cold  water  in  order  to  prevent 
an  undue  rise  in  temperature. 

When  mercerized  cotton  is  to  be  bleached,  it  is  best,  after  the 
first  rinsing,  to  remove  the  major  portion  of  the  caustic  soda  and 
arrest  the  mercerization,  not  to  rinse  again  in  acidulated  water,  as 
would  ordinarily  be  done  if  the  material  were  not  to  be  immedi- 
ately bleached.  The  small  amount  of  caustic  soda  which  still 
remains  in  the  cotton  acts  in  a  beneficial  manner  in  bleaching. 

A  silky  lustre  resembling  that  produced  by  mercerization  can 
be  given  to  cotton  cloth  by  means  of  what  is  known  as  a  calender 
finish.  This  is  accomplished  by  passing  the  cloth  between  rollers 
under  heavy  pressure,  one  of  the  rollers  being  engraved  with 
obliquely  set  lines  ruled  from  125  to  600  to  the  inch.  The  effect 
is  to  produce  a  great  number  of  parallel,  flat  surfaces  on  the  cloth, 
which  causes  it  to  acquire  a  high  lustre.  By  conducting  the  opera- 
tion with  hot  rollers  quite  a  permanent  finish  can  be  produced 
which  closely  approximates  mercerized  cotton.  Cloth  so  fin» 
ished,  however,  loses  its  lustre  in  a  large  degree  on  washing. 
The  method  is  chiefly  known  as  the  "  Schreiner  process." 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
SEED-HAIRS  OTHER  THAN  COTTON. 

i.  Bombax  Cotton. — Besides  the  cotton  derived  from  the  ordi- 
nary species  of  the  cotton  plant  (Gossypium  family),  there  is  a  very 
similar  seed-hair  fibre  obtained  from  a  plant  known  as  the  cotton- 
tree  and  belonging  to  the  Bombacea  family.  The  fibre  is  known 
in  trade  as  vegetable  dtw.i  or  bombax  cotton.  It  grows  almost 
exclusively  hi  tropical  countries.  The  fibre  is  soft,  but  rather 
weak  as  compared  with  ordinary  cotton;  in  color  it  varies  from 
white  to  a  yellowish  brown,  and  it  is  quite  lustrous.  The  fibres 
have  a  length  of  from  10  to  30  mm.,  and  a  diameter  of  from  0.020 
to  0.045  mm-  Owing  to  its  weakness  and  lack  of  elasticity, 
bombax  cotton  is  not  used  by  itself  as  a  textile  fibre;  it  is  some- 
times mixed  with  ordinary  cotton  and  spun  into  yarn,  but  it  is 
principally  used  as  a  wadding  and  upholstery  material. 

In  its  physical  appearance,  bombax  cotton  differs  from  true 
cotton  in  not  possessing  any  spiral  twist  and  showing  irregular 
thickenings  of  the  cell- wall;  the  fibre  usually  consists  of  one 
cell,  though  occasionally  it  may  have  two.  Unlike  true  cotton, 
the  fibre  does  not  grow  directly  from  the  seed,  but  originates 
at  the  inner  side  of  the  seed-capsule. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  plants  from  which  vegetable 
down  may  be  obtained.  In  Brazil  it  is  obtained  from  the  Bombax 
heptaphyllum  and  B.  ceiba,  and  the  product  is  known  as  Paina 
Urn  pa  or  ceiba  cotton.  This  is  also  produced  in  the  West  Indies 
and  other  parts  of  tropical  America.  In  Bombax  ceiba^  the  fibre 
has  a  length  of  from  i  to  1.5  cm.,  while  in  B.  heptaphyllum  the 
fibre  length  is  from  2  to  3  cm.,  being  by  far  the  longest  and 
strongest  variety  of  bombax  cotton.  B.  malabaricum,  of  South 

249 


250 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Asia  and  Africa,  has  fibres  from  i  to  2  cm.  in  length;  this  latter 
is  known  in  India  as  Simal  cotton  or  red  silk-cotton.  Other 
varieties  of  Bombax  plants  are  B.  cumanensis  of  Venezuela, 
giving  a  product  known  as  "  lana  del  tambor  "  or  "  lana  vejetale  "; 
B.  pubescens  and  B.  villosum  from  Brazil;  B.  carolinum  from 
South  America;  B.  rhodognaphalon  of  West  Africa,  the  fibre  of 


FIG.  63. — Vegetable  Down.     (X35Q.) 

E,  lace-like  structure  at  base;   F,  fibre  folded  on  itself;  P,  point  of  fibre;  C,  thin 
cell-wall.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

which  is  known  as  wild  kapok  and  is  used  largely  for  the  stuffing 
of  pillows. 

The  microscopical  characteristics  of  vegetable  down  are  as 
follows :  The  fibre  consists  of  a  single  cell,  possessing  a  cylindrical 
shape,  being  rather  thick  at  the  base  and  tapering  gradually  to  the 
point.  The  base  of  the  fibre  is  frequently  swollen  and  exhibits 
a  lace-like  structure  (see  Fig.  63).  The  cell- wall  is  usually 
very  thin,  occupying  not  more  than  one-tenth  the  width  of  the 


SEED-HAIRS  OTHER   THAN  COTTON.  251 

fibre.  The  cross-section  is  circular  and  not  flat,  as  in  the  case  of 
cotton.  The  inner  canal  is  partly  filled  with  a  dried-up  proto- 
plasmic membrane. 

In  its  chemical  constitution  vegetable  down  differs  from 
ordinary  cotton  in  containing  a  certain  amount  of  lignified  tissue; 
consequently  it  furnishes  a  yellow  coloration  when  treated  with 
anilin  sulphate  or  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  by  these 
tests  it  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  true  cotton.  Owing 
to  its  lignified  nature  the  fibres  also  swell  but  slightly  when  treated 
with  Schweitzer's  reagent.  The  fibre  from  the  Bombax  ceiba  is 
distinguished  by  its  decidedly  yellowish  color. 

The  seed-hairs  of  the  Eriodendron  anjractuosum  (or  Bombax 
pentandrum)  are  very  similar  to  the  preceding  varieties  of  vege- 
table down.  It  gives  the  product  known  hi  Holland  as  kapok. 
In  both  their  physical  appearance  and  chemical  properties  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  between  kapok  and  ceiba  cotton. 
Kapok  is  obtained  from  South  Asia  and  the  East  Indies,  and  is 
very  extensively  used  as  upholstery  material,  and  also  for  the 
stuffing  of  life-saving  belts  on  account  of  its  low  specific  gravity. 

The  hair-fibres  of  the  Ochroma  lagopus  (from  the  West  Indies) 
have  a  length  of  from  0.5  to  1.5  cm.,  and  are  thicker  in  the 
middle  than  at  the  ends.  The  cell-wall  is  much  thicker  than 
with  bombax  cotton,  and  the  fibres  are  also  more  highly  lignified 
than  those  of  the  latter.  They  occur  in  trade  as  edredon  vegetale 
or  pattes  de  lievre,  and  the  product  comes  mostly  from  Guade- 
loupe and  Martinique.  The  Ouate  vegetale  of  the  French  trade 
is  a  mixture  of  fibres  from  Bombax,  Ochroma,  and  Chorisia 
varieties. 

The  Cochlospermum  gossypium  of  India  and  the  Chorisia 
speciosa  and  C.  insignis  of  South  America  also  furnish  fair  quali- 
ties of  vegetable  down. 

Pulu  fibre  can  also  be  classed  under  the  general  name  of 
vegetable  down.  It  is  the  hair  obtained  from  the  stems  of  fern- 
trees,  more  especially  the  Cibotium  glaucum  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands.  The  fibres  are  lustrous,  of  a  golden  brown  color,  very 
soft,  and  not  especially  strong.  They  have  a  length  of  about 
5  cms.,  and  are  composed  of  a  series  of  very  flat  cells,  pressed 


252  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

together  in  a  ribbon-like  form.  The  fibre  is  only  employed  as  an 
upholstery  material  and  is  never  spun.  Similar  fibres  are  also 
obtained  from  Cibotium  barometz,  C.  menziesii,  and  C.  chamissoi; 
the  second  one  produces  the  best  fibre. 

2.  Vegetable  Silk. — Another  seed-hair  which  is  utilized  to 
some  extent  as  a  fibre  is  the  so-called  vegetable  silk  or  Asclepias 
cotton. 

This  fibre  is  obtained  from  Asclepias  syriaca  and  A.  incarnata 
or  common  milkweed  or  silk  weed.  The  plant  grows  extensively 
in  America.  The  surface  fibre  from  the  seed-pods  *  is  used  for 
upholstery  material;  it  has  also  been  used  in  France  for  the 
manufacture  of  woven  fabrics,  being  spun  with  80  per  cent,  of 
wool,  and  made  into  a  fabric  known  as  "silver  cloth." 

The  fibre  of  vegetable  silk  is  quite  brittle  in  nature  and  pos- 
sesses but  little  tensile  strength;  hence  attempts  at  spinning  it  by 
itself  have  not  proved  very  successful.  Its  chief  physical  quality 
is  its  high  degree  of  lustre  and  softness.  When  examined  under 
the  microscope,  the  fibre  exhibits  thickened  ridges  in  the  cell- 
wall  which  serve  to  distinguish  it  from  Bombax  cotton.  Each 
fibre  consists  of  a  single  cell,  usually  somewhat  distended  at  the 
base.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  white  color;  the  length  varies  from 
i  o  to  30  mm.  and  the  diameter  from  0.02  to  0.05  mm.  As  vegetable 
silk  is  somewhat  lignified,  it  may  be  distinguished  from  true  cotton 
by  giving  a  yellowish  brown  coloration  with  iodin  and  sulphuric 
acid,  and  a  yellow  coloration  with  anilin  sulphate.  Its  micro- 
chemical  reactions  are  very  similar  to  Bombax  cotton,  though 
with  phloroglucol  and  hydrochloric  acid  the  latter  gives  a  dull 
violet  coloration,  while  vegetable  silk  gives  a  bright  red-violet 
coloration. 

There  are  several  minor  varieties  of  vegetable  silk,  chief 
among  which  are  the  following;  Asclepias  curassavica  and 
A.  volubilis  from  the  West  Indies  and  South  America;  Calo- 
tropis  gigantea  and  C.  procera  of  southern  Asia  and  Africa: 
several  species  of  Marsdenia  from  India ;  Beaumontia  grandi flora 
from  India,  and  different  varieties  of  Strophantus  from  Senegal. 

*  The  same  plant  also  furnishes  a  bast  fibre  which  is  fine,  long,  and  glossy 
and  said  to  be  equal  in  strength  and  durability  to  hemp. 


SEED- HAIRS  OTHER    THAN  COTTON.  253 

The  different  varieties  of  vegetable  silk  are  very  difficult  to 
distinguish  from  one  another.  They  all  possess  a  soft  feel  and 
a  high  silky  lustre.  In  color  they  vary  from  almost  pure  white 
to  a  slight  orange-yellow.  In  thickness  the  fibres  usually  vary 
from  35  to  60  //,  though  occasionally  they  may  reach  80  //.  In 
length  they  vary  from  10  to  50  mm.  The  fibre  has  but  little  plia- 
bility or  elasticity,  hence  is  very  brittle;  this  is  due  to  the  very 
thin  cell-wall.  All  varieties  exhibit  the  thickened  ridge  in  the 
cell-wall,  which  gives  the  fibre  the  appearance  of  being  uneven 
in  thickness.  In  cross-section,  these  ridges  are  usually  semi- 
circular, though  sometimes  flat  and  broad.  The  cross-section 
of  the  fibre  itself  is  usually  circular. 

The  seed-hairs  of  the  Beaumontia  grandiflora  furnishes  prob- 
ably the  best  variety  of  vegetable  silk,  as  the  fibre  is  not  only  the 
most  lustrous  but  is  also  the  most  purely  white,  while  it  also 
possesses  the  greatest  tensile  strength  and  the  fibres  are  easily 
separated  from  the  seeds.  The  fibres  are  from  3  to  4.5  cm.  in 
length  and  from  33  to  50  fi  in  diameter.  The  thickness  of  the  cell- 
wall  is  about  3.9  fi.  At  the  base  the  fibre  is  somewhat  enlarged. 
The  fibre  of  Calotropis  gigantea  *  is  from  2  to  3  cm.  in  length 
and  from  12  to  42  /i  in  diameter;  the  cell- wall  is  from  1.4  to  4.2  // 
in  thickness.  At  the  base  the  fibre  is  somewhat  enlarged  and 


*  Calotropis  gigantea,  or  giant  asclepias,  also  yields  a  bast  fibre  said  to  be  of 
very  superior  quality,  somewhat  resembling  flax  in  appearance  and  of  the  same 
strength.  The  vegetable  silk  enveloping  the  seeds  is  known  in  India  as  madar 
floss.  The  bast  fibre  is  said  to  show  a  high  degree  of  resistance  to  moisture; 
according  to  Spon,  samples  exposed  for  two  hours  to  steam  at  two  atmospheres 
pressure,  boiled  in  water  for  three  hours,  and  again  steamed  for  four  hours,  lost 
only  5.47  per  cent,  in  weight,  whereas  flax  under  the  same  conditions  lost  3.50  per 
cent.,  manila  hemp  6.07  per  cent.,  hemp  6.18  to  8.44  per  cent.,  and  coir  8.14 
per  cent.  As  to  the  strength  of  the  fibre,  Dr.  Wright's  tests  give  it  a  breaking 
strain  of  552  pounds  as  compared  with  404  pounds  for  sunn  hemp;  Royle's  tests 
give  it  a  breaking  strain  of  190  pounds  as  compared  with  160  pounds  for  Russian 
hemp  and  190  pounds  for  Jubbulpore  hemp  from  Crotalaria  tenuifolia.  The 
vegetable  silk  from  Calotropis  gigantea  is  known  in  Java  under  the  name  of  kapok, 
though  this  name  is  also  given  to  the  product  of  the  Eriodendron  anjractuosum 
and  Bombax  pentandrum.  The  fibre  is  said  to  have  been  made  into  shawls  and 
handkerchiefs,  but  it  hardly  possesses  sufficient  strength  to  be  spun  alone.  The 
C.  gigantea  is  not  only  a  fibre  plant,  as  it  also  yields  gutta-percha,  varnish,  dye, 
and  medicinal  substances. 


254  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

flattened,  though  this  formation  is  not  so  perceptible  as  in  the 
case  of  Beaumontia  grandiflora.  The  fibre  of  Calotropis  gigantea 
is  known  in  Venezuela  as  algodon  de  seda.  The  fibres  from  the 
various  species  of  Marsdenia  are  very  uniformly  cylindrical  and 
straight.  In  length  they  vary  from  i  to  2.5  cm.  and  in  diameter 
from  19  to  33  //.  The  cell  wall  has  an  average  thickness  of  2.5  /*. 
The  fibre  of  Strophantus  differs  somewhat  from  other  varie- 
ties, in  that  at  the  base  there  occur  pores  in  the  cell- walls.  This 
fibre  is  also  not  so  easily  removed  from  the  seeds  and  possesses 
a  reddish  yellow  color. 

Vegetable  wool  is  a  product  obtained  from  the  green  cones 
of  the  pine  and  fir  by  processes  of  fermentation,  washing,  and 
mechanical  disintegration.  It  is  used  in  mixtures  with  cotton 
and  wool  for  the  production  of  yarns,  and  also  for  the  stuffing 
of  mattresses,  etc.  The  yarns  prepared  from  vegetable  wool 
mixed  with  sheep's  wool  are  used  hi  the  manufacture  of  the 
so-called  "hygienic  flannels."  * 

*  These  are  especially  recommended  for  gouty  patients,  as  it  is  claimed  they 
keep  the  body  uniformly  warm  and  protect  it  from  dampness. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;    LUSTRA-CELLULOSE. 

I.  General  Considerations. — Owing  to  the  high  price  and 
value  of  silk  as  a  textile  fibre,  numerous  attempts  have  been 
made  to  produce  an  artificial  filament  resembling  it  in  properties.* 
Several  of  these  processes  have  been  attended  with  a  considerable 
degree  of  success,  and  at  the  present  time  artificial  silk  has  become 
a  commercial  article,  and  is  used  hi  considerable  quantity  by  the 
textile  trade.f  The  varieties  of  these  silks  divide  themselves  into 
the  following  classes: 

(1)  Pyroxylin  silks,  made  from  a  solution  of  guncotton  in  a 
mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether. 

(2)  Fibres  made  from  a  solution  of  cellulose  in  ammoniacal 
copper  oxide  or  chloride  of  zinc. 

(3)  Viscose  silk,  made  from  a  solution  of  cellulose  thiocarbon- 
ate. 

(4)  Gelatin  silk,   made  from  filaments  of  gelatin  rendered 
insoluble  by  treatment  with  formaldehyde. 

With  the  exception  of  the  last  class,  all  of  these  so-called  silks 
are  filaments  of  cellulose,  resolidified  from  various  kinds  of  solu- 

*  The  entomologist  Reaumur,  in  the  year  1 734,  in  a  memoir  on  the  history  of 
insects,  appears  to  have  been  the"  first  to  look  forward  to  the  possible  preparation 
of  silk  by  artificial  means.  It  was  not  until  1884,  however,  that  the  first  commer- 
cial process  for  the  preparation  of  artificial  silk  was  taken  out  in  patent  form  by 
the  Count  Hilaire  de  Chardonnet. 

t  The  first  attempt  at  the  spinning  of  a  solution  of  collodion  appears  to  have 
been  made  by  Audemars  at  Lausanne  (Eng.  Pat.  283  of  1855).  Further  experi- 
ments were  made  by  Weston  (Eng.  Pat.  of  Sept.  12,  1882)  and  Swan  (Ger.  Pat. 
30291  of  1884)  on  solutions  of  nitrated  cellulose  in  acetic  acid.  Wynne-Powell 
(Eng.  Pat.  of  Dec.  22,  1884)  tried  the  preparation  of  filaments  from  a  solution  of 
cellulose  in  zinc  chloride.  All  of  these  attempts  had  in  view  the  preparation  of 
filaments  for  incandescent  electric  lamps. 

•55 


256  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

tions,  hence  it  has  been  proposed  to  give  to  these  fibres  the  general 
name  of  lustra-cellulose,  as  one  more  descriptive  of  their  true 
nature.* 

The  large  majority  of  the  lustra-cellulose  used  in  trade  at  the 
present  time  falls  under  the  first  class  of  pyroxylin  silks.  This 
represents  the  oldest  and  most  successful  method  employed  for 
the  manufacture  of  this  interesting  fibre;  and  there  are  three 
chief  processes  by  which  the  silk  is  made,  known  by  the  names 
of  the  respective  inventors:  Chardonnet,  du  Vivier,  and  Lehner. 
All  of  these  processes  use  a  solution  of  nitrated  cellulose  as  a  base, 
and  employ  the  same  general  mechanical  idea  to  produce  the 
filaments  of  the  fibre,  the  principle  being  to  force  a  solution  of 
nitrated  cellulose  through  a  fine  capillary  tube,  coagulate  the  thin 
stream  of  solution  thus  obtained,  and  finally  denitrate  and  reel  the 
thread  of  filaments  so  obtained.  As  previously  described  (page 
225),  cellulose,  on  treatment  with  nitric  acid,  can  be  made  to  yield 
a  series  of  nitrated  celluloses,  the  exact  compound  obtained  being 
dependent  upon  the  conditions  of  treatment. 

2.  Chardonnet  Silk. — This  is  prepared  from  octonitrated 
cellulose  dissolved  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether.f  The 

*  From  the  term  "artifiicial  silk,"  many  would  reasonably  suppose  that  the 
substance  so  designated  is  the  same  in  composition  and  nature  as  the  fibre  derived 
irom  the  silkworm,  but  made  by  chemical  or  other  artificial  means.  This  is  not 
the  case,  however,  and  the  term  "artificial  silk"  is  rather  a  misleading  one  in  this 
sense.  The  name  in  reality  stands  for  a  fibre  resembling  in  its  lustre  and  general 
appearance  the  true  silk  of  nature;  but  the  identity  goes  no  further  than  this; 
for,  in  its  chemical  composition  and  properties,  artificial  silk  is  entirely  distinct 
from  that  produced  by  the  silkworm.  It  would  be  better  to  call  the  artificial 
product  "imitation  silk,"  or  give  it  some  name  more  distinctive  of  its  origin  and 
true  nature,  such  as  the  term  "lustra-cellulose,"  proposed  by  Cross  and  Bevan. 
The  latter  term  is  especially  adapted  to  the  product  in  question,  for  the  different 
varieties  of  this  fibre  which  have  acquired  any  degree  of  technical  importance  are  all 
made  from  cellulose  derivatives,  and  their  chief  quality  is  their  high  degree  of 
lustre. 

f  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  reduce  the  cost  of  the  collodion  and  to 
obtain  other  solvents  for  the  nitrated  cellulose.  Bronnert  in  1895  brought  for- 
ward a  process  of  making  collodion,  based  on  the  solubility  of  tetranitrated-cellu- 
lose  in  alcoholic  solutions  of  certain  salts,  such  as  calcium  chloride,  ammonium 
acetate,  and  ammonium  sulphocyanide.  The  explanations  advanced  for  these 
reactions  are  rather  uncertain.  It  may  be  supposed  that  the  ammonium  acetate 
produces  a  hydrolysis,  the  ammonium  sulphocyanide  a  partial  denitration  of  the 


ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;    LUSTRA-CELLULOSE.  257 

solution  is  coagulated  by  passage  through  water,  and  is  subse- 
quently denitrated  *  by  a  treatment  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  chloride 
of  iron,  and  ammonium  phosphate.  It  forms  a  glossy,  flexible 
fibre,  possessing  the  peculiar  feel  and  scroop  of  true  silk. 

The  pyroxylin  employed  for  the  production  of  Chardonnet's 
silk  may  be  prepared  from  either  wood-pulp,  cotton,  ramie,  or 


FIG.  64.— Chardonnet  Silk. 

(Micrograph  by  author.) 

other  source  of  purified  cellulose.  As  there  are  several  nitrated 
compounds  of  cellulose  soluble  in  the  alcohol-ether  mixture 

tetranitrated-cellulose,  and  the  calcium  chloride  an  alcoholic  derivative  of  the 
cellulose,  which  could  well  be  an  ethoxy-derivative,  if  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Bron- 
nert,  "that  the  body  designated  by  the  name  of  tetranitrated-cellulose  is  a  tetra- 
nitrated-oxycellulose,"  is  correct.  The  different  compounds  thus  formed  would 
be  soluble  in  alcohol.  (See  Bernard,  Man.  Scientif.,  May,  1905.) 

*  When  first  prepared,  pyroxylin  silks  were  very  inflammable,  which  led  to 
their  being  regarded  with  disfavor.  The  processes  of  denitration,  however,  have 
now  rendered  them  even  less  inflammable  than  ordinary  cotton.  Antiphlogin  is 
tbe  trade-name  of  a  mixture  used  for  the  purpose  of  overcoming  the  inflammable 
nature  of  artificial  silk.  It  consists  of  boric  acid,  phosphate  of  ammonia,  and 
acetic  acid.  Pyroxylin  steeped  in  this  solution  is  said  to  be  incombustible. 


258  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

(which  is  employed  as  the  pyroxylin  solvent),  and  as  it  is  difficult 
to  obtain  satisfactory  separations  of  the  individual  compounds, 
it  is  probable  that  the  pyroxylin  contains  penta-,  tetra-,  tri-,  and 
di-nitrated  cellulose,  the  tetra-  and  tri-nitrated  compounds  prob- 
ably occurring  in  larger  amounts.  The  preparation  of  a  pyrox- 
ylin, suitable  for  use  in  the  making  of  Chardonnet  silk,  as  pre- 
scribed by  Wyss-Naef,  calls  for  a  nitrating  mixture  of  15  parts 
of  fuming  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.52),  with  85  parts  of  commercial 
sulphuric  acid.  For  4  kilograms  of  cellulose  about  35  litres  of  this 
acid  mixture  are  required,  and  the  time  of  action  is  from  four 
to  six  hours.  Samples  are  examined  from  time  to  time  with 
the  micro-polariscope  in  order  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  nitra- 
tion, and  when  all  the  fibres  appear  of  a  uniform  bright  blue 
color  under  the  polariscope  the  action  of  the  acid  mixture  is 
discontinued.  The  excess  of  acid  is  removed  from  the  fibre  by 
means  of  a  hydraulic  press,  after  which  the  nitrated  cellulose  is 
washed  for  several  hours  with  water  and  then  pressed  again, 
until  the  mass  contains  only  about  30  per  cent,  of  water.  At 
first  the  pyroxylin  so  prepared  was  dried  before  being  dissolved 
in  the  alcohol-ether  solvent,  but  it  was  subsequently  discovered 
that  a  better  solution  could  be  obtained  by  using  the  pyroxylin 
containing  the  amount  of  wrater  above  noted.  This  form  of 
pyroxylin  has  been  called  by  Chardonnet  "  pyroxylin  hydrate,'' 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  the  substance  is  a  true  hydrate.  However, 
it  appears  to  be  about  25  per  cent,  more  soluble  than  the  dry 
pyroxylin.  The  solvent  employed  for  the  pyroxylin  consists  of 
a  mixture  of  40  parts  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol  with  60  parts  of 
ether,  and  100  parts  of  this  liquid  will  dissolve  about  28  to  30  parts 
of  pyroxylin.  The  collodion  so  produced  is  filtered  several  times 
under  pressure,  in  order  to  free  it  from  all  non-nitrated  and  un- 
dissolved  fibres,  and  to  obtain  a  perfectly  clear  and  homogeneous 
solution.  This  condition  is  a  very  essential  one  for  the  successful 
production  of  the  silk,  as  any  irregularity  in  the  solution  would 
cause  a  break  in  the  continuity  of  the  spun  filament  or  a  stoppage 
of  the  machine.  The  pyroxylin  requires  from  15  to  20  hours  for 
complete  solution,  and  that  prepared  from  cotton  requires  a 
longer  tune  to  dissolve  than  that  from  wood-pulp.  In  order 


ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;    LUSTRA-CELLULOSE.  259 

to  properly  filter  the  solution  a  pressure  of  30  to  60  atmospheres 
is  necessary. 

The  next  operation  in  the  manufacture  of  the  silk  is  purely 
a  mechanical  one,  and  yet  one  which  has  required  the  use  of 
considerable  ingenuity  and  skill.*  The  object  is  to  force  the 
collodion  solution  through  very  .fine  capillary  glass  tubes,  so  that 
it  may  be  drawn  thence  as  a  fine  continuous  filament.  The 
collodion  solution  is  quite  viscous,  and  requires  a  pressure  of  from 
40  to  50  atmospheres  to  force  it  through  capillaries  of  0.08  mm. 
diameter.  The  flow  of  solution  and  pressure  must  be  so 
adjusted  and  capable  of  regulation  as  to  provide  a  uniform  fila- 
ment, and  this  involved  many  mechanical  difficulties,  which  were 
only  overcome  after  long  experimenting  and  numerous  failures. 
We  will  not,  however,  at  this  point  enter  into  a  consideration  of 
the  various  mechanical  devices,  ingenious  though  they  are,  which 

*  An  outline  of  the  methods  employed  in  the  practical  manufacture  of  Char- 
donnet  silk  is  as  follows:  A  good  quality  of  wood-pulp  is  carefully  disintegrated 
by  suitable  machines  (resembling  a  carding-machine),  so  as  to  separate  the  indi- 
vidual fibres  as  much  as  possible.  The  bulky,  fleece-like  mass  is  then  dried  by 
steam  heat  at  i4O°-i6o°  C.,  after  which  the  heated  fibres  are  steeped  in  a  mix- 
ture of  concentrated  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  as  in  the  general  method  of  mak- 
ing gun-cotton.  After  suitable  treatment  in  the  acids,  the  nitrated  cotton  is 
centrifugated  to  remove  excess  of  acid,  then  washed  until  it  contains  only  about 
10  per  cent,  of  acid.  The  product  was  formerly  dried  in  special  drying-rooms, 
where  the  temperature  should  not  be  above  30°  C.,  and  every  precaution  must  be 
taken  to  avoid  explosions.  The  dried  nitrated  cellulose  was  then  dissolved  in  a 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  alcohol  and  ether,  so  as  to  secure  a  20  per  cent,  solution. 
The  resulting  collodion  (as  the  solution  is  now  known)  is  carefully  filtered  through 
silk  sieves  in  such  a  manner  as  to  remove  all  undissolved  fibres  or  other  foreign 
matter.  The  collodion  then  passes  to  the  spinning-machine  where  it  is  forced  through 
tubes  having  nozzles  of  glass  or  platinum  with  fine  orifices.  As  the  threads  of 
collodion  appear  they  come  into  immediate  contact  with  a  fine  stream  of  water, 
which  removes  the  solvent  and  coagulates  the  cellulose  compound.  Several  of 
the  fine  threads  are  united  and  are  wound  on  bobbins  and  into  suitable  hanks. 
The  silk  is  then  denitrated  by  treatment  with  a  warm  solution  of  ammonium 
sulphide,  after  which  the  hanks  are  washed  and  slightly  acidified  in  order  to 
remove  all  the  ammonium  compounds.  The  process  of  denitration  causes  the 
silk  to  lose  about  40  per  cent,  in  weight,  though  this  is  usually  replaced  in  part 
by  proper  impregnation  with  solutions  of  metallic  salts,  which  also  have  the  effect 
of  making  the  silk  fire-proof.  In  the  manufacture  of  collodion  silk,  an  important 
factor  is  the  recovery  of  the  solvent  from  the  wash-waters;  owing  to  the  extreme 
volatility  of  the  ether  this  is  by  no  means  an  easy  task. 


260  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

,have  been  perfected  for  the  proper  spinning  and  handling  of 
this  artificial  fibre.* 

The  thread  as  it  emerges  from  the  capillary  tube  is  rapidly 
coagulated  in  the  air  by  the  evaporation  of  the  solvent.  By 
suitable  arrangement  of  a  hood  over  the  machine  and  condensing 
chambers  in  connection  therewith,  a  large  portion  of  the  mixed 
volatile  vapors  of  the  alcohol  and  ether  employed  as  the  solvent 
are  condensed  and  collected,  thus  effecting  a  considerable  saving 
in  the  amount  of  solvent  required,  and  also  minimizing  the  danger 
of  explosions  occurring.  Several  of  the  individual  filaments  are 
brought  together  into  a  single  thread  and  wound  on  spools 
in  the  manner  of  ordinary  silk.  In  this  operation  a  certain 
amount  of  adhesion  takes  place  between  the  separate  filaments, 
which  considerably  enhances  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  finished 
thread.  The  thread  in  this  form  now  consists  of  pyroxylin  or 
nitrated  cellulose,  and  is  highly  inflammable  and  otherwise 
unsuitable  for  use  in  textile  fibres.  The  next  operation  through 
which  it  passes  is  one  for  the  purpose  of  denitrating  the  cellulose, 
in  order  that  the  fibre  may  ultimately  consist  of  what  might  be 
termed  "  regenerated  "  cellulose,  the  exact  chemical  nature  of 
which  it  is  not  possible  to  definitely  state,  though  it  is  evidently 
some  form  of  cellulose.  The  denitration  is  accomplished  by 
passing  the  pyroxylin  threads  through  a  bath  of  ammonium 
sulphide,  though  other  alkaline  sulphides,  and  various  other 
compounds  also,  will  effect  the  same  result.  The  silk  in  this  con- 
dition has  a  rather  yellow  color,  which,  however,  may  be  bleached 
out  in  the  usual  manner  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime.  The 
fibre,  as  finally  obtained,  possesses  a  very  high  lustre,  though  it 
is  somewhat  metallic  in  appearance;  it  has  considerable  tensile 
strength,  though  in  this  respect,  as  also  in  elasticity,  it  is  consider- 
ably below  true  silk.  The  fibre  is  also  rather  harsh  and  brittle, 
and  does  not  possess  the  softness  and  resiliency  of  natural  silk.f 

3.  Du  Vivier's  Silk. — The  basis  of  du  Vivier's  silk  is  a 
solution  of  trinitrated  cellulose  in  glacial  acetic  acid.  In  practice, 

*  See  Siivern,  Die  kunstliche  Seide,  Berlin,  1900,  and  Williams,  La  Soie  Arti 
ficielle,  Paris,  1902. 

f  See  Matthews,  Jour.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  1904,  p.  176. 


ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;    LUSTRA-CELLULOSE.  261 

this  is  mixed  with  a  solution  of  gutta-percha  in  carbon  disulphide, 
and  one  of  isinglass  in  glacial  acetic  acid.  Small  quantities  of 
glycerol  and  castor-oil  are  added,  and  the  mixture  is  drawn 
through  the  spinning-tubes  into  water,  where  it  becomes  coagu- 
lated. The  thread  which  is  so  formed  is  treated  successively 
with  soda,  albumin,  mercuric  chloride,  and  carbon  dioxide.  Du 
Vivier's  silk  is  hard,  and  very  white  and  glossy. 

4.  Lehner's  Silk. — Lehner  employs  a  solution  of  nitrated 
cellulose  in  ether  and  methyl  alcohol,  to  which  he  adds  a  solution 
of  natural  silk  in  glacial  acetic  acid.*  The  thread  is  coagulated 
by  passage  through  a  mixture  of  turpentine,  chloroform,  and 
juniper-oil,  and  is  afterwards  treated  with  a  solution  of  sodium 
acetate,  f 

Silk-like  filaments  may  be  obtained  from  a  solution  of  cellulose 
in  zinc  chloride.  The  liquid  may  be  easily  spun,  but  the  thread 
which  is  formed  is  too  weak  to  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
silk.  The  solution  is  principally  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
filaments  for  incandescent  electric  lamps.  A  better  solution 
is  obtained  by  using  alkali-cellulose  in  place  of  cellulose  (Bron- 
nert). 


*  Lehner's  silk  is  now  produced  by  much  the  same  means  as  that  of  Char- 
donnet,  and  the  fibre  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  latter.  Lehner  at  first  attempted 
to  obtain  a  fibre  from  a  mixture  of  pyroxylin  solution  with  various  vegetable  gums 
and  oils,  with  solutions  of  cotton  in  copper-ammonium  sulphate,  and  even  with 
solutions  of  waste  silk  itself.  None  of  these,  however,  proved  a  success,  and  he 
reverted  to  the  more  simple  solution  of  pyroxylin  in  combination  with  a  drying 
oil.  He  also  discovered  that  the  fluidity  of  the  collodion  could  be  materially 
enhanced  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  consequently  he  was  able  to  work 
his  solution  under  much  less  pressure  than  Chardonnet. 

t  The  manufacture  of  artificial  silk  has  of  late  years  become  an  enterprise 
of  commercial  importance.  There  are  factories  producing  pyroxylin  silk  at 
Besancon  (France),  Spreitenbach  and  Zurich  (Switzerland),  Wobton  (England), 
and  Elberfeld  (Germany).  The  fibres  are  formed  by  forcing  the  ether-alcohol 
solution  of  pyroxylin  through  glass  capillary  tubes  and  winding  them  on  frames. 
As  the  solution  is  very  viscous,  it  requires  a  pressure  of  45  atmospheres  to  dis- 
charge it  through  the  capillary  openings.  It  was  formerly  the  custom  to  carry 
out  the  dyeing  of  pyroxylin  silk  in  the  pulp,  but  this  proved  to  be  impracticable, 
and  at  present  it  is  chiefly  dyed  in  the  form  of  yarn.  The  proportion  between 
the  price  of  natural  and  artificial  silk  is  approximately  as  follows  Natural  silk, 
$10  per  kilogram;  pyroxylin  silk,  $475  per  kilogram;  gelatin  silk  (vanduara), 
$2.40  per  kilogram. 


262  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

A  solution  of  cellulose  sulphate  in  caustic  soda  may  be  used  for 
the  making  of  artificial  silk.  The  following  method  is  said  to 
be  capable  of  yielding  good  results:  10  parts  of  cotton  are  mixed 
with  100  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  of  1.55  sp.  gr.,  the  mass  is  thrown 
into  water,  and  the  precipitated  cellulose  sulphate  is  washed,  and 
then  dissolved  in  100  parts  of  caustic  soda  of  1.12  sp.  gr.*  This 


FIG.  65. — Cuprammonium  or  Pauly  Silk.     (X3SO.) 
(Micrograph  by  author.) 

solution  is  spun  in  the  usual  manner,  and  the  thread  is  subsequently 
coagulated. 

5.  Cuprammonium  Silk. — Lustra-cellulose  threads  are  also 
prepared  from  a  solution  of  cellulose  in  ammoniacal  copper 
oxide  solution  (Schweitzer's  solution). f  The  process  in  brief 

*  Vereinigte  Kunstseidefabriken  of  Frankfurt. 

fWeston,  in  1884,  used  this  solution  for  the  making  of  incandescent-lamp 
filaments;  Despeissis,  in  1890,  first  thought  of  applying  it  to  the  preparation  of 
artificial  silks.  Fremery  and  Urban,  in  1897,  under  the  name  of  Pauly,  patented 
the  first  practical  process  for  the  manufacture  of  the  fibre.  This  silk  is  now  made 
in  considerable  quantity  by  the  Vereinigte  Glanzstoff-fabriken  Actiengesellschaft 
of  Aachen,  who  have  factories  at  Oberbruch  and  Niedermorschweiler.  The 
product  is  known  as  Pauly' s  silk  or  Parisian  artificial  silk. 


ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;    LUSTRA-CELLULOSE.  263 

is  as  follows:  The  copper  solution  is  first  prepared  by  treating 
copper  turnings  with  ammonia  in  the  presence  of  lactic  acid  at 
a  temperature  of  4°  to  6°  C.  At  the  end  of  about  ten  days  the 
intense  blue  solution  of  ammoniacal  copper  oxide  is  ready  for 
use.  The  next  step  is  to  obtain  mercerized  cellulose  (cellulose 
hydrate),*  which  is  done  by  mixing  100  parts  of  cellulose  with 
looo  parts  of  a  solution  containing  30  parts  of  sodium  carbonate 
and  50  parts  of  caustic  soda.  This  mixture  is  heated  for  3^ 
hours  in  a  closed  vessel  under  a  pressure  of  2^  atmospheres. 
The  mercerized  cotton  thus  obtained  is  washed,  dried,  bleached 
with  chloride  of  lime,  washed  and  again  dried;  after  which  it 
is  dissolved  in  the  ammoniacal  copper  oxide  solution.  The 
solution  (containing  7  to  8  per  cent,  of  mercerized  cotton)  is 
filtered,  settled,  and  then  spun  through  capillary  tubes  under  a 
pressure  of  2  to  4  atmospheres.  The  thread  is  coagulated  by 
passing  through  a  bath  containing  30  to  65  per  cent,  of  sulphuric 
acid. 

6.  Viscose  Silk. — This  is  prepared  from  solutions  of  cellulose 
thiocarbonate.  It  has  been  made  with  some  degree  of  commercial 
success  in  the  United  States  and  Europe.  It  is  principally  made 
in  coarse  numbers,  and  is  used  as  an  artificial  horse-hair.  Finer 
numbers  of  considerable  softness  have  also  been  made,  for  use  in 
braids,  passementerie,  etc. 

Viscose  itself  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  caustic  alkali  and 
carbon  disulphide  on  mercerized  cellulose,  a  gelatinous  mass 
being  obtained  which  is  readily  soluble  in  water,  giving  a  yellowish 
and  very  viscous  solution.  Viscose  is  an  alkaline  xanthate  of 
cellulose,  and  its  industrial  manufacture  is  carried  out  in  the 
following  general  manner :  Sheets  of  crude  wood-pulp  are  ground 
up  with  solid  caustic  soda  in  a  circular-edge  roller-mill  until  a 
finely  divided  crumb-like  mass  is  obtained.  The  product  in 
this  form  is  known  as  "  crumbs,"  and  consists  of  alkali-cellulose. 
The  excess  of  moisture  is  then  pressed  out,  and  the  material  is 

*  Ordinary  cellulose  dissolves  but  very  slowly  in  Schweitzer's  reagent,  and 
moreover  the  solution  is  always  accompanied  by  oxidation  which  changes  the 
cellulose  molecule  so  that  it  is  not  fit  to  spin.  Bronnert  first  proposed  the  use  of 
cellulose  hydrate,  and  so  made  the  method  of  practical  value. 


264 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


allowed  to  lie  for  some  time.  This  alkali-cellulose  is  then  placed 
in  a  vat  provided  with  a  rotary  stirrer,  where  it  is  treated  with 
carbon  disulphide.  The  resulting  mass  is  translucent  and 
gelatinous  in  appearance  and  of  a  clear  brown  color,  and  is  known 
by  the  name  of  viscose.  Immediately  after  its  formation,  the 
viscose  is  dissolved  in  water  and  then  filtered  in  order  to  remove 
any  cellulose  fibre  which  may  not  have  undergone  chemical 


FIG.  66.— Viscose  Silk.     (X35O.) 
(Micrograph  by  author.) 

transformation.  For  the  successful  preparation  of  artificial 
silk  it  is  necessary  that  the  filtering  should  be  as  perfect  as  pos- 
sible, for  the  occurrence  of  any  fibres  in  the  solution  will  cause 
stoppages  of  the  spinnerets  and  consequently  breaks  in  the 
filaments.  After  filtering  the  viscose  solution  is  thoroughly 
mixed.  When  the  desired  degree  of  fluidity  has  been  attained 
(which  is  indicated  by  means  of  a  viscosimeter),  the  viscose  solu- 
tion is  run  into  suitable  reservoirs,  in  which  it  is  maintained  at 
a  temperature  of  32°  F.  Previous  to  passing  into  the  spinning- 
machines,  the  viscose  solution  is  filtered  a  second  time,  after 


ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;    LUSTRA  CELLULOSE.  265 

which  it  is  run  into  an  apparatus  where  it  is  subjected  to  high 
pressure  for  the  purpose  of  forcing  out  all  air-bubbles  which  are 
liable  to  be  retained  by  the  viscous  solution.  This  latter  treat- 
ment is  very  essential,  as  the  presence  of  air-bubbles  would 
interfere  very  materially  with  the  regularity  of  the  spun  fibre. 
The  viscose  solution  then  goes  into  an  apparatus  which  may  be 
called  a  spinning-frame.  This  consists  of  a  double  series  of 
small  pumps,  which  force  the  solution  through  platinum  spin- 
nerets pierced  with  very  fine  openings,  the  number  of  which 
varies  with  the  size  of  the  thread  it  is  desired  to  produce.  The 
production,  therefore,  is  proportional  to  the  number  of  orifices  in 
use;  the  normal  number  being  about  eighteen  orifices  per  thread, 
while  each  orifice  corresponds  to  a  daily  production  of  about 
28  grams  (about  one  ounce).  Each  spinneret  and  tube  which 
carries  it  are  immersed  in  a  concentrated  solution  of  ammonium 
sulphate,  for  the  purpose  of  coagulating  the  liquid  jet  coming 
from  the  spinneret  by  bringing  it  into  immediate  contact  with 
the  solution.  The  different  filaments  forming  the  threads  are  at 
the  same  time  united  into  one  single  fibre,  and.  these  are  carried 
into  a  solution  of  ferrous  sulphate  (copperas)  in  order  to  remove 
all  residual  matter  left  on  the  fibre  from  the  first  bath.  The 
threads  then  pass  into  a  turbine  bobbin,  which  collects  them 
into  skeins,  and  at  the  same  time  gives  the  thread  the  desired 
degree  of  twist.  The  fibre,  in  the  form  of  hanks,  is  then  steeped 
in  an  acid  solution  for  the  purpose  of  neutralizing  any  alkali 
left  in  the  filaments,  the  excess  of  acid  being  afterwards  removed 
by  washing  in  water.  The  fibre  at  this  stage  has  a  rather"  pro- 
nounced yellow  color,  which  is  removed  by  bleaching  with  chloride 
of  lime.  Viscose  silk  has  a  fine  glossy  appearance,  and  possesses 
a  tensile  strength  about  equal  to  that  of  pyroxylin  silk;  like  the 
latter,  however,  it  is  also  weakened  when  moistened  with  water. 
7.  Properties  of  Lustra-cellulose. — The  chief  drawback  to  the 
commercial  success  of  collodion  silk  is  its  behavior  with  water. 
When  wetted  the  fibre  loses  its  original  strength  to  such  a  degree 
that  it  must  be  handled  with  great  care.  Soap  solutions  and 
dilute  acids  have  no  injurious  effect,  but  alkaline  solutions  rapidly 
disintegrate  the  fibre  and  finally  dissolve  it  completely.  The 


266  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

material  is  difficult  to  dye,  on  account  of  the  weakening  action  of 
water,  and  the  operation  must  be  carried  out  with  great  care. 
The  dyeing  is  accomplished  without  the  addition  of  either  soap 
or  acid  to  the  bath.  The  basic  coloring-matters  and  some  of 
the  direct  cotton  colors  appear  to  be  the  best  dyestuffs  to  employ. 

Besides  the  three  processes  already  given  of  obtaining  collo- 
dion silk,  there  are  other  methods  for  the  manufacture  of  this 
artificial  product.  Langhaus  *  employs  as  a  raw  material  a  prep- 
aration from  cellulose  and  sulphuric  acid.  Cadarat  uses  nitrated 
cellulose,  dissolving  it  in  a  very  complex  mixture  of  glacial 
acetic  acid,  ether,  acetone,  alcohol,  toluol,  camphor,  and  castor-oil. 
This  forms  a  plastic  mass  which  is  treated  with  some  proteid 
substance,  such  as  gelatin  or  albumin  dissolved  in  glacial  acetic 
acid.  After  spinning  the  fibres  are  treated  with  tannin  in  order 
to  render  them  elastic. 

Hoepfner  f  has  prepared  porous  acid-proof  fabrics  to  be 
employed  for  filtering  purposes  in  electrolytic  work  by  using  cot- 
ton yarn  which  has  been  nitrated.  The  latter  can  be  woven 
along  with  asbestos,  glass,  or  other  mineral  fibres  in  the  making 
of  the  fabric. 

If  nitrated  cotton  be  examined  under  the  microscope,  a  con- 
siderable alteration  in  its  appearance  will  be  observed.  The 
fibres  have  a  much  thicker  cell- wall,  and  are  consequently  stiffer 
than  those  of  ordinary  cotton.  The  lumen  has  either  vanished 
entirely  or  become  very  much  contracted,  and  this  appears  to  be 
due  to  the  swelling  of  the  cell-walls.  In  the  walls  of  the  fibre 
there  will  also  be  noticed  numerous  fractures  or  cracks  which 
often  assume  a  spiral  shape.  .  The  nitration  has  evidently  rendered 
the  fibre  much  more  brittle  and  has  decreased  its  elasticity. 

Solutions  of  nitrated  cellulose  have  been  employed  for  a 
number  of  purposes,  such  as  the  production  of  films  for  photo- 
graphic use,  the  manufacture  of  lacquers,  etc.  The  author  has 

*  This  process  consists  in  dissolving  cellulose  in  a  mixture  of  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  treating  the  syrup  so  obtained  with 
glyceric  ether  or  ethyl  ether.  The  silk  obtained  by  this  process  is  not  of  good 
quality,  and  the  solution  is  not  very  stable,  as  it  soon  precipitates  more  or  less 
altered  cellulose. 

f  Farber-Zeit.,  1897,  No.  5. 


ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;    LUSTRA-CELLULOSE.  267 

also  successfully  utilized  such  a  preparation  for  the  waterproofing 
of  paper  and  other  materials.  It  also  forms  an  excellent  water- 
proof sizing  and  stiffening  agent  for  all  manner  of  textile  fabrics 
and  hats. 

As  the  solutions  of  nitrated  cellulose  possess  great  viscosity, 
it  is  difficult  to  prepare  a  very  concentrated  solution.  The 
addition  of  formaldehyde  or  benzol,  however,  to  the  ordinary 
solvents,  will  increase  the  dissolving  capacity  considerably,  and 
also  give  a  more  mobile  solution.  Epichlor-  and  dichlorhydrins 
also  act  as  excellent  solvents  for  nitrated  cellulose,  being  capable 
of  dissolving  it  in  any  proportion. 

The  acetate  of  cellulose  (see  p.  220)  has  also  been  used  as  a 
basis  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  silk.  It  is  dissolved  in  a 
suitable  solvent  and  spun  in  the  same  manner  as  collodion  silk, 
the  thread  being  coagulated  by  passing  through  a  bath  of  water. 
With  collodion  silk  the  weight  of  the  product  obtained  (after 
denitration)  is  scarcely  equal  to  that  of  the  cellulose  used,  whereas 
with  acetyl  cellulose  the  weight  of  the  resulting  silk  corresponds 
to  about  twice  the  weight  of  the  cellulose  taken.  The  silk  made 
from  acetyl  cellulose,  however,  is  less  stable  towards  acids  and 
alkalies  than  collodion  silk,  neither  does  it  dye  as  readily;  and 
the  dyeing  is  best  done  by  adding  the  coloring-matter  to  the 
solution  before  spinning.  The  silk  made  from  acetyl  cellulose 
is  known  as  "  cellestion  "  silk,  and  is  much  used  for  covering 
electric  wires,  as  it  has  remarkable  insulating  properties. 

8.  Vanduara  Silk.* — This  is  a  thread  of  gelatin,  and  conse- 
quently differs  from  the  other  artificial  silks  in  that  it  consists 
of  animal  tissue  and  not  vegetable.  Due  to  this  circumstance, 
it  has  more  analogy  chemically  to  true  silk  than  the  various 
cellulose  silks.  The  manufacture  of  vanduara  silk  is  conducted 
by  forcing  an  aqueous  solution  of  gelatin  through  a  fine  capillary 
tube;  the  thread  so  produced  is  carried  on  an  endless  band 
through  a  drying-chamber.  The  soft  gelatin  thread,  of  course, 
flattens  out  considerably  during  this  operation,  hence  the  silk 

*  Vanduara  silk  is  an  English  invention,  the  patentee  being  Adam  Millar. 
The  silk  has  never  appeared  on  the  market  as  a  commercial  commodity,  and 
the  process  does  not  seem  to  have  met  with  any  marked  degree  of  success. 


268  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

eventually  forms  a  flat,  ribbon-like  fibre.  After  drying  and 
properly  reeling  the  fibre  is  treated  with  vapor  of  formaldehyde, 
which  causes  the  gelatin  to  become  insoluble  in  water.  By  vary- 
ing the  pressure  on  the  gelatin  solution,  whereby  it  is  forced 
through  the  capillary  tube,  the  thickness  of  the  fibre  may  be 
increased  or  diminished.  The  same  result  may  be  attained  by 
varying  the  speed  of  the  endless  band  which  carries  the  thread 
after  coming  from  the  capillary  tube.  The  silk  may  be  dyed 
either  in  the  ordinary  way  in  skein  form  after  reeling,  or  the 
gelatin  solution  may  be  colored  before  the  thread  is  drawn  out. 
The  fibre  is  very  lustrous,  and  if  the  filaments  are  drawn  fine 
enough  the  silk  is  soft  and  pliable. 

9.  Comparison  of  Artificial  Silks. — Hassac  *  gives  a  com- 
parison of  several  makes  of  artificial  silk.  Chard onnet's  and 
Lehner's  silks  are  very  similar  in  appearance;  they  are  more 
lustrous  than  real  silk,  but  are  stiffer,  and  do  not  possess  the 
characteristic  feel.  Cellulose  silk  made  by  Pauly's  ammoniacal 
copper  oxide  process  is  similar  to  the  former  in  appearance,  but 
its  lustre  is  even  better,  and  it  has  the  characteristic  feel  of  true 
silk.  Lehner's  silk  under  the  microscope  is  characterized  by 
deep  longitudinal  grooves  and  small  air- bubbles;  its  cross- 
section  is  highly  irregular.  Pauly's  silk  shows  fine  longitudinal 
grooves  and  minute  transverse  lines  in  the  centre  of  the  fibres; 
its  cross-section  is  regular,  approaching  a  circle  or  ellipse.  Ham- 
mel's  gelatin  silk  is  almost  circular  in  outline,  and  is  free  from 
grooves  and  bubbles;  in  polarized  light  it  is  singly  refracting, 
while  the  others  are  doubly  so. 

As  the  collodion  silks  always  contain  some  nitrated  compound, 
they  give  a  blue  color  with  diphenvlamin  and  sulphuric  acid. 
Water  causes  all  the  artificial  silks  to  swell,  while  alcohol  or 
glycerol  contracts  them.  In  strong  sulphuric  acid  the  collodion 
silks  swell  rapidly  and  dissolve;  Pauly's  cellulose  silk  gradually 
becomes  thinner  and  dissolves;  gelatin  silk  only  dissolves  on 
strong  heating.  Chromic  acid  dissolves  all  artificial  silks  in  the 
cold;  real  silk  dissolves  but  slowly,  while  cotton  and  other  vege- 
table fibres  are  unaffected.  Caustic  potash  does  not  dissolve 

*  Chem.  Zeit.,  1900,  pp.  235,  267,  297. 


ARTIFICIAL  SILKS;    LUSTRA-CELLULOSE. 


269 


the  collodion  or  cellulose  silks,  but  both  the  gelatin  silk  and 
real  silk  are  soluble  on  boiling.  Schweitzer's  reagent  dissolves 
collodion  and  cellulose  silks;  whereas  gelatin  silk  is  insoluble,  but 
stains  the  liquid  a  bright  violet.  Alkaline  copper-glycerol  solu- 
tion at  80°  C.  dissolves  real  silk  immediately.  Tussah  and  gelatin 
silks  dissolve  when  boiled  for  one  minute;  the  other  silks  are  not 
affected.  lodin  solution  colors  artificial  silks  an  intense  red, 
which  changes  to  a  transient  pale  blue  on  washing  with  water  in 
the  case  of  collodion  silks,  though  cellulose  silk  does  not  show 
this  blue  color.  lodin  and  sulphuric  acid  stain  true  silk  a 
yellow  color,  gelatin  silk  brown,  while  collodion  and  cellulose 
silks  are  colored  blue. 


COMPARISON  OF  DIFFERENT  ARTIFICIAL  SILKS  WITH  REAL  SILK  (HASSAC). 


Moisture. 

Fibres  to 
Sq.  Mm. 

Tens.  Strength. 
Kilo,  per 
Sq.  Mm. 

Elas- 

Silk. 

Per  Ct. 

Air-       Satu- 

P^Ct. 

rated, 
Per  Ct. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Dry. 

Real  silk  

8.7.1 

20.11 

.36 

9710 

9710 

37- 

37-o 

21.6 

Chardonnet  

II  .  II 

27.46 

.  C2 

640 

n^S 

8  o 

(Walston) 

11.32 

28.94 

•53 

683 

f. 

IO2O 

I. 

22.3 

7-9 

1180 

Pauly 

2?    08 

742 

Gelatin 

13.98 

e. 

45  -56 

•73 

265 

945 

0. 

6.6 

3-8 

Strehlenert  and  Westergren  give  the  following  figures  for  the 

tensile  strengths  of  various  natural  and   artificial  silks.     The 

figures  indicate  the  breaking  strains  in  kilograms  per  square 
millimetre  section: 

NATURAL  SILKS. 

Dry.  Wet. 

Chinese  silk 53.2  46.7 

French  raw  silk 5°-4  4°-9 

French  silk,  boiled  off 25.5  13.6 

"         "     dyed  red  and  weighted 20.0  15-6 

"         "     blue-black,  weighted  110% 12.1  8.0 

"         "     black,  weighted  140% 7.9  6.3 

"        "     black,  weighted  500% 2.2 


270  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

ARTIFICIAL    SILKS. 

Dry.  Wet. 

Chardonnet's  collodion,  undyed 14-?  i •  7 

Lehner's  collodion,  undyed 17.1  4.3 

Strehlenert's  collodion,  undyed 15.9  3.6 

Pauly's  cuprammonium,  undyed 19 .  i  3.2 

Viscose  silk,  early  samples 11.4  3.5 

"         "     latest  samples 21.5 

Cotton  yarn  (for  comparison) 11.5  18.6 

10.  Animalized  Cotton. — Cotton  may  be  "  animalized  " — 
that  is,  given  the  dyeing  properties  possessed  by  animal  fibres — 
in  a  variety  of  ways.  The  material  may  be  impregnated  with 
albumin  and  afterwards  steamed;  this  method  is  employed  to 
some  extent  in  printing,  being  used  chiefly  in  connection  with 
the  direct  cotton  colors  to  prevent  their  bleeding.  A  solution  of 
casein  may  also  be  used  instead  of  albumin,  with  similar  results. 
The  same  property  may  also  be  imparted  to  cotton  by  treatment 
with  tannic  acid  and  gelatin  or  lanuginic  acid  (solution  of  wool 
in  caustic  alkali),  but  with  doubtful  results;  though  Knecht 
describes  a  method  which  is  said  to  give  satisfaction,  the  cotton 
being  impregnated  with  a  solution  of  lanuginic  acid  and  allowed 
to  dry  in  the  presence  of  formaldehyde,  when  the  fibre  becomes 
coated  with  an  insoluble  film  possessing  a  remarkable  affinity 
for  the  substantive  dyes.  Vignon  claims  that  by  treating  cotton 
under  pressure  with  ammonia  in  presence  of  zinc  chloride  or 
calcium"  chloride,  the  fibre  acquires  an  increased  affinity  for  the 
basic  and  acid  dyestuffs.  His  results,  however,  have  not  been 
confirmed. 

A  silk-like  appearance  may  also  be  given  to  vegetable  fibres  by 
treatment  with  a  solution  of  silk  (fibroin)  in  some  suitable  solvent, 
such  as  hydrochloric,  phosphoric,  or  sulphuric  acid,  or  cupram- 
monium, etc.  The  silk  employed  is  made  up  of  scraps  and  waste 
which  would  otherwise  be  useless.  Better  results  are  obtained 
if  the  cotton  material  be  treated  with  a  metallic  or  tannic  acid 
mordant  before  immersion  in  the  silk  solution,  and  should  after- 
wards be  calendered  and  polished  in  order  to  obtain  a  glossy 
appearance. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

LINEN. 

i.  Preparation. — Linen  is  the  fibre  obtained  from  the  flax 
plant,  botanically  known  as  Linum  usitatissimum*  The  fibre  is 
prepared  from  the  bast  of  the  plant  by  a  process  called  retting, 
which  has  for  its  purpose  the  separation  of  the  fibrous  cellulose 
from  the  woody  tissue  and  other  plant  membranes.  Historically 
linen  appears  to  have  been  the  earliest  vegetable  fibre  employed  in- 
dustrially^ having  been  used  at  a  much  earlier  date  than  cotton. 
Though  grown  more  or  less  in  every  country,  J  at  present  the 
cultivation  of  flax  is  principally  carried  on  in  France,  Ireland, 
Belgium,  Holland,  Russia,  United  States,  §  and  Canada. ||  The 

*  Botanists  recognize  upwards  of  one  hundred  species  of  the  flax  plant,  but, 
of  all  these,  the  only  one  possessing  industrial  importance  and  the  only  one  readily 
cultivated  is  the  Linum  usitatissimum  (or  L.  commuri),  which  has  a  blue  flower. 
The  North  American  Indians  have  long  used  the  fibre  of  L.  luvisii,  which  differs 
from  the  ordinary  cultivated  flax  in  having  three  stems  growing  from  a  perennial 
root.  The  most  ancient  species  of  flax  brought  under  cultivation  is  thought  to 
be  L.  angustijolium;  the  Swiss  lake-dwellers  are  said  to  have  grown  it,  as  also  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  northern  Italy.  The  flax  cultivated  in  the  eastern  coun- 
tries, in  Assyria  and  Egypt,  appears  to  have  been  the  common  variety  L.  usitatissi- 
mum. 

t  Egyptian  linen  fabrics  (mummy-cloths)  have  been  found  which  are  probably 
over  4500  years  old. 

%  The  world's  annual  production  of  linen  is  about  1,000,000,000  pounds. 

§  Only  in  the  vicinity  of  Yale,  Michigan,  at  Northfield  and  Heron  Lake,  Minne- 
sota, and  at  Salem  and  Scio,  Oregon,  is  flax  cultivated  in  America  for  the  production 
of  spinning  fibre.  In  all  these  localities  the  seed  is  saved,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
industry  would  yield  sufficient  profits  from  the  production  of  the  fibre  alone  to 
warrant  its  continuance  under  present  conditions.  (Yearbook,  Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 

||  The  Department  of  Agriculture  gives  the  following  marks  of  the  commercial 
grades  of  flax  imported  into  the  United  States : 

From  Russia:  Russian  flax  is  known  either  as  Slanelz  (dew-retted)  or  Mot- 
chenetz  (water-retted);  ungraded  fibre  is  called  Siretz.  The  latter  comes  chiefly 

271 


272  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

bast  tissue,  which  is  used  for  the  fibre,  is  situated  between  the 
bark  and  the  underlying  woody  tissue  (see  Fig.  68). 

The  flax  plant  is  annual  in  growth  and  rather  delicate  in 
structure.  It  grows  to  about  40  inches  in  height ;  the  stem  is  slen- 
der, branching  only  slightly  at  the  top,  and  bears  naked,  lanceo- 
late, alternate  leaves.  The  flower  is  mostly  sky-blue,  though  some- 
times white ;  the  seed-capsules  are  five-lobed  and  globular,  and  of 
the  size  of  peas. 

The  flax  plant,  after  attaining  its  proper  growth,  is  either  cut 
down  or  pulled  up  by  its  roots,  and  subjected  to  a  process  tech- 
nically known  as  rippling,  the  plants  being  drawn  through  a 
machine  consisting  of  upright  forks  which  remove  the  seeds 
and  leaves.*  The  remaining  stalks  are  then  tied  in  bundles 

from  St.  Petersburg,  and  is  known  under  the  names  of  Bejedsk,  Krasnoholm, 
Troer,  Kashin,  Gospodsky,  Nerechta,  Wologda,  Jaraslav,  Graesowetz,  and  Kos- 
iroma;  all  these  varieties  are  slanetz.  Pochochon,  Ouglitz,  Rjeff,  Jaropol,  and 
Stepurin  are  motchenetz.  From  Archangel  are  brought  slanetz  varieties  known 
as  First  Crown,  Second  Crown,  Third  Crown,  Fourth  Crown,  First  Zabrack  and 
Second  Zabrack.  From  Riga  are  obtained  motchenetz  varieties  graded  from  the 
standard  mark  K  through  HK,  PK,  HPK,  SPK,  HSPK,  ZK,  GZK,  and  HZK. 

From  Holland:  Dutch  flax  is  graded  by  the  marks  ^,  ",  VI,  VII,  VIII,  IX. 
From  Belgium:   Flemish  flax  (or  blue  flax)  includes  Bruges,  Thisselt,  Ghent, 
Lokeren,  and  St.  Nicholas,  and  is  graded  as  ^,  ^   ",  VI,  VII,  VIII,  IX.     Cour- 

«ai  fla,  is  graded  as  ±44,  §,  H4,  VI. 

Furnes  and  Bergues  flax  is  graded  A,  B,  C,  D.  Walloon  flax  is  graded  II,  III, 
IV.  Zealand  flax  is  graded  IX,  VIII,  VII,  VI.  Friesland  flax  is  graded  D,  E, 
Ex,  F,  Fx,  Fxx,  G,  Gx,  Gxx,  Gxxx. 

From  France :  French  flax  is  known  by  the  districts  of  Wavrin,  Flines,  Douai, 
Kazebrouck,  Picardy,  and  Harnes. 

From  Ireland:  Irish  flax  comes  as  scutched  and  mill  scutched,  and  is  known 
by  the  names  of  the  counties  in  which  it  is  raised. 

From  Canada :  This  flax  has  no  standard  of  marks  or  qualities. 

*  Besides  being  cultivated  for  its  fibre,  the  flax  plant  is  also  grown  for  its  seed, 
which  yields  the  valuable  oil  known  as  linseed.  It  possesses  good  drying  quali- 
ties, and  hence  is  extensively  used  for  the  preparation  of  paints  and  varnishes. 
The  best  seed-flax  is  grown  in  tropical  and  subtropical  countries,  whereas  the 
best  fibre-flax  is  grown  in  more  northern  climates.  The  seed  obtained  from 
the  latter  variety,  though  utilized  as  a  by-product,  produces  only  an  inferior  grade 
of  oil.  The  oil-cake  left  after  expressing  the  oil  from  the  seed  is  an  excellent 
cattle-food  and  is  largely  used  for  this  purpose. 


LINEN. 


273 


and  placed  in  stagnant  water,  where  they   are  allowed  to   re- 

main for  a  number  of  days.     Active  fermentation  soon  starts, 

resulting  in  the  decomposition  of 

the  woody  tissues  enclosing  the 

cellulose  fibres.    When  the  proc- 

ess has  gone  sufficiently  far,  the 

bundles  of  fermented  stalks  are 

removed  and    passed  through  a 

number  of  mechanical  operations, 

whereby  the  decomposed  tissues 

are  removed  and  the  linen  fibres 

are  isolated  in  a  purified   condi- 

tion.    This    method-  of    retting 

with  stagnant  water  is  known  as 

"  pool-retting."     As  the  fermen- 

tation   causes  the    evolution    of 

considerable  gas,  in  order  to  keep 

the  bundles  of  stalks  submerged, 

they  are  loaded  with   stones  or 

boards.     The  time  of  steeping  in 

the    water   varies    with   circum- 

stances from  five  to  ten  days.* 

Another  method  of  retting  is  to 

steep    in    running    water.     The 

famous  Courtrai  flax  of  Belgium 

is  retted  in  this  manner  in  the 

river  Lys.     The  flax-  straw,  after  FlG-  67.  -The  Ancient  Flax  Plant 

...  .         .          ,    . 

pulling,  is  placed  in  crates  and 
submerged  in  the  water  of  this 
stream  for  a  period  of  four  to  fifteen  days,  depending  on  th- 

*  Dodge  gives  the  following  notes  relative  to  the  retting  of  flax:  "For  dew  - 
retting  a  moist  meadow  is  the  proper  place,  the  fibre  being  spread  over  the  grouc  > 
in  straight  rows  at  the  rate  of  a  ton  to  an  acre.  If  laid  about  the  ist  of  October 
and  the  weather  is  good,  a  couple  of  weeks  will  suffice  for  the  proper  separation 
of  the  fibre  and  woody  matter.  For  pool-retting  the  softest  water  gives  the  best 
results,  and  where  a  natural  pool  is  not  available,  such  as  the  bog-holes'  in  Ireland, 
'steep  pools'  will  have  to  be  built.  A  pool  30  feet  long,  10  feet  wide,  and  4  feet 
deep  will  suffice  for  an  acre  of  flax.  Spring  water  should  be  avoided,  or,  if  u?ed, 


Linum  an  gusti  folium. 

(After  Bulletin  ^  s  Dept  Agric  } 


2/4 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


temperature  and  other  conditions.     Courtrai  flax  is  of  a  creamy 
color,  whereas  pool-retted  flax  has  a  rather  dark  bluish  brown 

C       P 
A     B  /        / 


FIG.  68. — Cross-section  of  Flax-straw. — A,  layer  of  cuticular  cells;  B,  interme- 
diate layer  of  cortical  parenchym;  C,  bast  fibres  in  groups,  being  the  flax 
fibres  proper  (note  secondary  thickening  of  cell-walls);  D,  cambium  layer; 
E,  woody  tissue.  (Cross  and  Bevan.) 

the  pool  should  be  filled  some  weeks  before  the  flax  is  ready  for  it,  in  order  to 
soften  the  water.  It  should  be  kept  free  from  all  mineral  and  vegetable  impuri- 
ties. The  sheaves  are  packed  loosely  in  the  pool.  .  .  .  Fermentation  is  shown 
by  the  turbidity  of  the  water  and  by  bubbles  of  gas.  ...  If  possible,  the  thick 
scum  which  forms  on  the  surface  should  be  removed  by  allowing  a  slight  stream 
of  water  to  flow  over  the  pool.  The  fibre  sinks  when  decomposition  has  been 
carried  to  the  proper  point,  though  this  is  not  always  a  sure  indication  that  it  is 
just  right  to  take  out.  In  Holland,  the  plan  is  to  take  a  number  of  stalks  of  aver- 
age fineness,  which  are  broken  in  two  places  a  few  inches  apart.  If  the  woody 
portion  or  core  pulls  out  easily,  leaving  the  fibre  intact,  it  is  ready  to  come  out. 
The  operation  usually  requires  from  five  to  ten  days." 


LINEN. 


275 


color.  The  excellent  qualities  of  the  Courtrai  flax  are  said 
to  be  due  to  the  action  of  the  soft,  slowly  running,  almost 
sluggish  waters  of  the  river  Lys,  and  to  the  peculiar  ferment 
existing  therein.  Another  method  employed  for  obtaining  the 
fibre  from  flax  is  known  as  dew-retting,  as  the  flax-straw  is  spread 
out  in  a  field  and  exposed  for  a  couple  of  weeks  to  the  action  of 
the  dew  and  the  sun.  Dew-retting,  however,  gives  the  most  un- 


FlG.  69. — Flax  Fibres.    (X4QO.)      a,    a',  cross-sections;    b,    longitudinal   views; 
c,  ends.     (After  Cross  and  Bevan.) 

even  and  least  valuable  product  of  the  three  methods  employed, 
and  the  fibre  is  rather  dark  in  color.  There  have  also  been 
several  chemical  methods  proposed  for  retting  flax,  such  as  heat- 
ing with  water  under  pressure,  boiling  with  solutions  of  oxalic 
acid,  soda  ash,  caustic  soda,  etc.  None  of  these,  however,  have 
proved  of  any  industrial  value,  and  the  older  natural  methods  are 
still  adhered  to.  Additions  of  various  chemicals  to  the  retting 
waters  have  at  times  proved  of  value,  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric 
acid  sometimes  being  used  to  advantage.* 

The  intercellular  substance  holding  the  flax  fibres  together 

*  Schenk's  method  of  retting  is  to  steep  in  warm  water,  a  constant  temperature 
of  35°  C.  being  maintained.  It  is  said  that  the  fermentation  may  be  completed 
by  this  method  in  fifty  to  sixty  hours,  and  gives  a  larger  yield  and  a  better  product 
than  the  natural  processes  of  retting.  In  steam-retting,  the  bundles  of  flax-straw 
are  placed  in  iron  cylinders  and  heated  with  live  steam  or  hot  water  under  pressure, 
but  the  process  does  not  appear  to  be  successful. 


276  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

consists  mostly  of  calcium  pectate,  and  the  real  object  of  retting 
is  to  render  this  substance  soluble,  so  that  it  may  be  removed  by 
the  after-processes  of  treatment.  Winogradsky  has  succeeded  in 
isolating  the  particular  organism  *  that  is  the  active  agent  in  the 
pectin  fermentation.f  It  is  an  anaerobic  bacillus  which  readily 
ferments  pectin  matters,  but  has  no  action  on  cellulose.  %  By 
adding  salts  promoting  the  growth  of  the  bacillus  to  the  water 
employed  hi  retting,  it  has  been  found  possible  to  reduce  the 
tune  of  retting  very  considerably.  It  has  been  claimed  that 
fatty  acids  exert  a  solvent  action  on  the  resinous  and  pectin  mat- 
ters present  in  vegetable  fibres,  and  a  method  for  the  decortication 
of  flax  and  other  bast  fibres  has  been  devised  as  follows:  The 


*  This  organism  is  the  Bacillus  amylobacter. 

f  The  substances  classified  in  a  general  way  as  "pectin  matters"  form  the  inter- 
celluhr  matter  between  the  elemental  cells  of  the  bast  fibres,  and  serve  the  purpose 
of  a  cementing  medium  to  hold  the  small  elements  of  the  fibre  together.  Their 
character  is  that  of  a  resinous  gum.  By  certain  investigators  this  resinous  matter  has 
been  given  the  name  peciose.  It  is  hardly  likely,  however,  that  this  substance  consists 
of  a  single  chemical  compound,  but  it  is  more  probably  a  mixture  of  several  chemical 
individuals.  By  heating  with  dilute  acid,  pectose  is  converted  into  a  series  of 
products  which  have  received  considerable  attention  from  botanical  chemists;  the 
products  include  pectin,  para-pectin,  meta-pectin,  pectosic  acid,  pectic  acid,  para- 
pectic  acid,  meta-pectic  acid,  etc.  Pectin  and  especially  para-  and  meta-pectin  are 
soluble  in  water,  whereas  pectic  acid  is  not.  Therefore,  if  it  is  desirable  to  sepa- 
rate the  elements  of  a  vegetable  tissue,  it  is  necessary  to  stop  the  action  of  the 
retting  agents  before  the  formation  of  pectic  acid.  In  the  case  of  the  preparation 
of  linen,  however,  it  appears  to  be  necessary  not  to  dissolve  out  all  the  pectose  de- 
rivatives from  the  fibre,  but  to  allow  of  the  formation  of  some  pectic  acid,  as  this 
makes  the  surface  of  the  fibre  more  brilliant  (Lecomte,  Textiles  icg&aux)  and 
leaves  it  stronger  and  more  elastic. 

\  The  water-retting  of  flax  is  a  biological  process  induced  by  the  action  of 
definite  organisms,  the  chief  of  which  is  an  anaerobic  Plectridium,  which  in  the 
absence  of  air  ferments  the  pectin  substances  of  the  cellular  material  uniting 
the  parenchymous  tissues,  and  thus  causes  a  loosening  of  the  bast  fibres.  The 
exclusion  of  oxygen,  which  is  necessary  that  the  fermentation  may  be  set  up,  is 
brought  about  by  numerous  oxygen-consuming  bacteria  and  fungi.  The  prod- 
ucts formed  by  the  fermentation  of  the  pectin  substances  are  hydrogen  and  carbon 
dioxide  and  organic  acids,  especially  acetic  and  butyric  and  small  quantities  of 
valeric  and  lactic  acids.  The  injurious  action  of  the  acids  produced,  especially 
butyric  acid,  may  be  considerably  diminished  by  adding  alkali  or  lime  to  the 
retting  liquid.  It  is  also  advantageous  to  inoculate  the  liquid  at  the  beginning  of 
the  retting  with  pure  cultures  of  the  anaerobic  Plectridium.  (See  Stormer,  Chem. 
Centr.,  1905,  p.  41.) 


LINEN. 


277 


raw  fibres  are  impregnated  with  boiling  soap  solutions,  after 
which  ammonium  chloride  is  added,  which  liberates  the  fatty 
acids.  After  several  hours'  treatment  these  dissolve  all  gummy 
and  resinous  matters;  the  fibres  are  then  treated 
with  weak  caustic  alkali,  after  which  they  are 
washed  and  dried,  when  they  should  be  thor- 
oughly disintegrated.  Good  results  are  said  to 
be  obtained  by  this  method. 

The  flax  stalks,  after  being  deprived  of  their 
leaves  "and  seeds  by  rippling,  are  known  as  flax- 
straw.  The  latter  in  the  air-dry  condition  con- 
tains from  73  to  80  per  cent,  of  wood,  marrow, 
and  bark,  and  20  to  27  per  cent,  of  bast.  The 
general  structure  of  flax-straw,  and  of  bast  stalks 
in  general,  is  shown  in  the  schematic  drawing 
(Fig.  70). 

The  linen  fibre  as  it  is  obtained  from  the 
plant  and  as  it  appears  in  trade  is  in  the  form 
of  filaments,  the  length*  of  which  varies  con- 
siderably with  the  manner  and  care  employed  in 
decorticating,  and  may  be  from  a  few  inches  to 
several  feet.f  These  filaments  are  composed 
structurally  of  small  elements  or  cells,  consisting 
of  practically  pure  cellulose.  They  are  uniformly 
thick,  and  average  12  to  25  fi  in  diameter  and  25 
to  30  mm.  in  length.  Their  structure  is  rather  regular,  oeing 
cylindrical  in  shape,  though  somewhat  polygonal  in  cross- 


FiG-70. — Diagram 
of  Flax-straw. 
i,  marrow;  2, 
woody  fibre;  3, 
cambium  layer; 
4,  bast  fibre;  5, 
rind  or  bark. 
(After  Witt.) 


*  Flax  fibre  is  from  12  to  36  inches  in  length,  silvery  gray  when  dew-retted, 
yellowish  white  when  water-retted,  capable  of  fine  subdivision,  soft  and  flexible, 
and  is  the  strongest  of  the  fine  commercial  bast  fibres.  It  is  used  for  making 
linen  sewing  thread,  shoe  thread,  bookbinders'  thread,  fishing-lines,  seine  twine, 
the  better  grades  of  wrapping  twine,  and  knit  underwear,  and  for  weaving  into 
handkerchiefs,  towelling,  table-linen,  collars  and  cuffs,  shirt -bosoms,  and  dress- 
goods.  The  finer  grades  of  linen  damasks  are  imported,  as  the  weaving  of  these 
goods  is  slow  work,  and  requires  a  kind  of  labor  not  commonly  found  in  this  coun- 
try. {Yearbook,  Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 

f  Good  flax  should  average  20  inches  in  length  and  be  free  from  fibres  less 
than  12  inches  in  length. 


278  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

section.  A  peculiarity  in  the  appearance  of  the  cells  is  the 
occurrence  of  faintly  marked  "  dislocations "  or  so-called 
11  nodes  "  extending  transversely  and  often  in  the  form  of  an 
"X."  These  nodes  may  be  made  more  apparent  by  stain- 
ing with  methyl  violet  or  chlor-iodide  of  zinc  solution.  The 
cell- wall  is  quite  uniform  in  thickness,  and  the  lumen  or  internal 
canal  is  very  narrow,  and  often  is  but  faintly  apparent  as  a  dark 
line.  The  cross-section  of  the  linen  fibre  shows  no  yellow  cir- 
cumferential stain  when  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  though  the 
lumen  shows  up  as  a  yellow  spot.  Wiesner  gives  the  following 
dimensions  of  several  varieties  of  flax  filaments :  * 


Kind  of  Flax. 

Mean  Length 
of  the  Purified 
Flax  Fibre, 

Mean  Breadth, 

mm. 

Egyptian.  
Westphalian  

960 

75° 

°-255 
0.114 

Belgian  Courtrai  

37° 

0.105 

Austrian  

410 

0.202 

Prussian  

280 

O.II9 

2.  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties. — The  flax  fibre  appears 
to  consist  of  pure  cellulose  f  and  shows  no  signs  at  all  of 
being  lignified.  It  becomes  strongly  swollen  by  treatment  with 


*  Dodge  gives  the  following  dimensions  for  the  elements  of  rtie  flax  fibre: 
Length,  0.157  to  2-59&  inches;  mean,  about  i  inch;  diameter,  0.006  to  0.00148 
inch;  mean,  o.ooi  inch. 

t  In  order  to  isolate  pure  flax  cellulose,  Cross  and  Bevan  have  recommended 
the  following  procedure:  The  non-cellulosic  constituents  of  flax  are  pectic  com- 
pounds which  are  soluble  in  boiling  alkaline  solutions.  The  proportion  of  such 
constituents  varies  from  14  to  33  per  cent,  in  different  varieties  of  flax.  They  may 
be  completely  extracted  by  first  boiling  the  fibre  in  a  dilute  solution  of  caustic 
soda  (i  to  2  per  cent.);  the  residue  will  consist  of  flax  cellulose,  with  small  rem- 
nants of  woody  and  cuticular  tissue,  together  with  some  of  the  oils  and  waxes 
associated  with  the  latter.  By  treatment  with  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of  lime, 
the  woody  tissue  is  decomposed,  and  is  then  removed  by  again  boiling  in  dilute 
alkali.  The  remaining  cellulose  is  then  further  purified  from  residual  fatty  and 
waxy  matters  by  boiling  with  alcohol  and  finally  with  ether-alcohol  mixture.  Flax 
cellulose  prepared  in  this  manner  appears  to  be  chemically  indistinguishable  from 
cotton  cellulose. 


LINEN.  279 

Schweitzer's  reagent  (see  Fig.  71),  but,  unlike  cotton,  it  does  not 
completely  dissolve  therein.* 

The  color  of  the  best  varieties  of  flax  is  a  pale  yellowish  white. 
Flax  retted  by  means  of  stagnant  water,  or  by  dew,  is  a  steel  gray, 
and  Egyptian  flax  is  a  pearl  gray.  The  pale  yellow  color  of  flax 
is  due  to  a  natural  pigment,  but  the  other  color  arises  from  the 
decomposition  of  the  intercellular  matter,  which  is  left  as  a  stain 
on  the  fibre.  Flax  that  has  been  imperfectly  retted  shows  a 


FIG.  71. — Cell   of    Flax    Fibre   Treated   with    Schweitzer's    Reagent.     (X4oo.) 
Showing  insoluble  cuticle  of  inner  canal.     (After  Wiesner.) 

greenish  color.  The  natural  color  of  linen  is  readily  bleached 
by  solutions  of  chloride  of  lime  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  bleach- 
ing of  cotton.  But  the  linen  fibre  suffers  considerable  deteriora- 
tion thereby.  There  are  four  grades  of  linen-bleaching — quar- 
ter, half,  three-quarters,  and  full  bleach.  The  whiter  the  fibre 
is  bleached  the  weaker  it  becomes.f  The  lustre  of  linen  is  quite 
pronounced  and  almost  silky  in  appearance;  flax  that  is  over- 
retted  is  dull  in  appearance.  Egyptian  flax  is  also  dull,  due  to 
the  cells  being  coated  with  residual  intercellular  matter. 

The  flax  fibre  is  much  stronger  than  that  of  cotton,  though 
overretted  flax  is  brittle  and  weak.f 

*  In  swelling  the  fibre  .blisters  considerably,  but  not  in  as  regular  a  manner 
as  cotton.  The  inner  layers  of  the  cell  withstand  the  action  of  the  reagent  the 
longest  and  remain  floating  in  the  liquid,  like  the  cuticle  of  cotton.  Parenchymous 
and  intercellular  matter  adhering  to  the  fibre  also  remains  undissolved  in  the 
reagent. 

t  In  determining  the  size  (or  number)  of  bleached  linen  yarns,  the  loss  in 
bleaching  is  fixed  at  20  per  cent,  for  full,  18  per  cent,  for  three-quarters,  and  15 
per  cent,  for  one-half  bleach. 

%  According  to  Spon,  samples  of  flax  fibre  exposed  for  two  hours  to  steam  at 
2  atmospheres,  boiled  in  water  for  three  hours,  and  again  steamed  for  four  hours, 
lost  only  3.5  per  cent,  in  weight,  while  Manila  hemp  under  these  conditions  lost 
6.07,  hemp  6.18  to  8.44,  and  jute  21.39  per  cent. 


280 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


As  flax  is  a  better  conductor  of  heat  than  cotton,  linen  fabrics 
always  feel  colder  to  the  touch  than  those  made  from  cotton. 

The  bast-cells  of  the  flax  fibre  may  be  isolated  by  treatment 
with  a  dilute  chromic  acid  solution.  They  are  cylindrical  in 
form  and  taper  to  a  point  at  each  end.  At  the  middle  they 
measure  12  to  26  /i,  with  an  average  of  about  15  ft.*  The 
length  varies  from  4  to  66  mm.,  with  an  average  of  about 


FIG.  72. — Flax  Fibre.     (Xsoo.)     A ,  longitudinal  view,  showing  jointed  structure 
and  tracing  of  lumen;    B,  cross-sections. 

25  mm.  The  ratio  of  the  length  of  the  cell  to  its  breadth  is 
about  1,200.  Under  the  microscope  the  surface  of  the  cell  appears 
smooth  or  marked  longitudinally,  with  frequent  transverse  fissure 
lines  and  jointed  structures.  On  treatment  with  chlor-iodide 
of  zinc  the  latter  are  colored  much  darker  than  the  rest  of  the 
cell  and  are  thus  rendered  more  apparent.  The  lumen  appears 
in  the  centre  of  the  cell  as  a  narrow  yellow  line,  and  it  is  usually 
completely  filled  with  protoplasm.  With  iodin  and  sulphuric 
acid  linen  gives  a  blue  color,  which,  however,  develops  less 
quickly  than  with  cotton;  with  tincture  of  madder  an  orange 
color  is  produced,  while  fuchsin  (followed  with  ammonia)  gives 
a  permanent  rose  color  in  contradistinction  to  cotton.  These 


*  According  to  Vetillard,  15  to  37  JJL,  with  an  average  of 


22   ft. 


LINEN.  281 

tests,  however,  are  only  applicable  to  unbleached  linen,  for  the 
cellulose  of  bleached  linen  shows  little  or  no  chemical  difference 
from  that  of  cotton.  In  cross-section  the  gells  of  flax  are  polyg- 
onal, with  rounded  edges,  show  a  small  lumen,  and  a  relatively 
thick  cell- wall  (see  Fig.  72).  In  these  respects  they  are  very 
similar  to  hemp,  but  may  be  distinguished  from  the  latter,  how- 
ever, in  that  they  do  not  aggregate  in  thick  bundles,  but  are 
more  or  less  isolated  from  each  other,  so  that  the  cross-section 
frequently  shows  but  one  cell,  and  seldom  more  than  three  or 
four  (see  Fig.  72).* 

The  following  analyses  show  the  composition  of  two  typical 

specimens  of  flax  (H.  M  tiller) : 

i.  ii. 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Water  (hygroscopic) 8 . 65  10 . 70 

Aqueous  extract 3 . 65  6.02 

Fat  and  wax 2 . 39  2.37 

Cellulose 82.57  71 .50 

Ash  (mineral  matter)  f o.  70  i  .32 

Intercellular  matter 2 . 74  9.41 

Highly  purified  flax  appears  to  approximate  very  closely  to 
both  the  composition  and  chemical  properties  of  cotton.  The 
ordinary  flax  fibre  of  trade  may  be  said  to  contain  about  5  per 
cent,  less  of  cellulose  than  cotton,  there  being  about  that  much 
more  impurity  present  in  the  form  of  intercellular  matter  and 
pectin  bodies.J  Linen,  however,  appears  to  be  free  from  woody 

*  Other  differences  from  hemp  exhibited  by  the  linen  fibre  are :  (a)  the  cross- 
section  does  not  show  an  external  yellow  layer  of  lignin  when  treated  with  iodin 
and  sulphuric  acid;  (6)  it  gives  reactions  for  pure  cellulose  only,  that  is,  iodin  and 
sulphuric  acid  color  the  fibre  a  pure  blue,  and  anilin  sulphate  gives  no  color, 
though  at  times  there  are  shreds  of  parenchymous  tissue  present  which  are  colored 
yellow  by  this  latter  reagent  and  appear  to  be  lignified;  (c)  the  lumen  of  the  hemp 
fibre  is  seldom  filled  with  yellowish  protoplasm  like  that  of  the  linen  fibre;  (d)  the 
linen  fibres  end  in  sharp  points,  whereas  those  of  hemp  do  not. 

t  According  to  Wiesner,  the  ash  of  the  linen  fibre  amounts  to  from  1.18  to 
5.93  per  cent.,  and  shows  no  evidence  of  crystals. 

J  The  flax  fibre  contains  a  certain  wax-like  substance,  varying  in  amount 
from  0.5  to  2  per  cent.  It  may  be  extracted  from  the  fibre  by  means  of  benzene 
or  ether.  The  color  of  the  wax  obtained  varies  with  that  of  the  flax  from  which 
it  is  obtained.  It  has  a  rather  unpleasant  odor,  resembling  flax  itself.  Its  melt- 
ing-point is  61.5°  C.,  and  its  specific  gravity  at  60°  F.  is  0.9083.  According  to 
Hofmeister,  this  wax  consists  of  81.32  per  cent,  of  unsaponifiable  waxy  matter 


282 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


or  lignified  tissue,  as  it  gives  none  of  the  reactions  for  these.  The 
linen  fibre  swells  up  greatly  when  treated  with  an  ammoniacal 
solution  of  copper  oxide,  but,  unlike  cotton,  it  does  not  exhibit  the 
peculiar  sausage-shaped  appearance,  nor  does  it  dissolve  com- 
pletely. The  hygroscopic  moisture  in  linen  is  about  the  same  as 
in  cotton;  in  fact,  all  vegetable  fibres  appear  to  contain  approxi- 
mately the  same  amount  (from  6  to  8  per  cent.).* 


FIG.  73. — Flax  Fibre.    (Xsoo.)     Stained  with  methyl  violet.     J,  joint-like  forma- 
tions;   F,  fissure-like  markings.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

Due  to  differences  in  structure,  linen  is  more  easily  disinte- 
grated than  cotton,  and  consequently  does  not  withstand  the 

and  18.68  per  cent,  of  saponifiable  oil.  Of  the  latter,  54.49  per  cent,  is  free  fatty 
acid.  The  waxy  matter  has  a  melting-point  of  68°  C.,  and  apparently  is  a  mixture 
of  several  bodies.  The  principal  one  resembles  ceresin,  and  there  are  also  present 
ceryl  alcohol  and  phylosterin.  The  saponifiable  matter  appears  to  contain  small 
quantities  of  soluble  fatty  acids,  like  caproic,  stearic,  palmitic,  oleic,  linolic,  lino- 
lenic,  and  isolinolenic. 

*  The  amount  of  "  regain  "  allowed  in  the  conditioning  of  linen  at  Roubaix  is  from 
10  to  12  per  cent.  Wiesner  gives  the  amount  of  hygroscopic  moisture  in  linen  as 
5.7  to  7.22  per  cent.  The  Turin  Congress  fixed  the  regain  for  linen  at  12  per  cent. 


LINEN.  283 

action  of  boiling  alkaline  solutions,  solutions  of  bleaching  pow- 
der, or  other  oxidizing  agents,  etc.,  as  well  as  cotton. 

Towards  mordants  and  dyestuffs,  etc.,  linen  does  not  react  as 
readily  as  cotton,  hence  its  manipulation  in  dyeing  is  more  diffi- 
cult. In  general,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  the  dyeing  and 
treatment  of  linen  are  practically  the  same  as  with  cotton. 

The  oil-wax  group  of  constituents  in  the  flax  fibre  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  spinning  *  of  this  fibre,  and  the  failure  of 
many  of  the  artificial  processes  of  retting  flax  may  be  attributed 
to  the  fact  that  the  fibre  is  left  with  a  deficiency  of  these  constitu- 
ents. In  the  breaking  down  of  the  cuticular  celluloses,  whether 
in  the  retting  or  in  the  bleaching  processes,  these  waxes  and  oils 
are  separated.  Their  complete  elimination  from  the  cloth  neces- 
sitates a  very  elaborate  treatment,  such  as  is  represented  by  the 
"  Belfast  Linen  Bleach." 

*  Linen  yarns  are  known  as  hand-spun  or  machine-spun;  the  former  are  softer 
and  smoother  and  more  elastic,  but  uneven  and  less  rounded  in  form,  while  ma- 
chine-spun yarns  are  stiff  and  rough,  but  of  uniform  thickness  and  perfectly  round. 
According  to  the  method  of  spinning,  linen  yarns  are  also  known  as  dry-spun  or 
wet-spun;  the  former  have  greater  firmness,  but  higher  numbers  can  be  obtained 
by  wet -spinning.  Tow  yarns  are  prepared  from  waste,  and  are  characterized  by 
numerous  knots  due  to  particles  of  shives.  In  the  English  system,  the  counts  of 
linen  yarns  are  expressed  by  the  number  of  leas  in  a  pound,  each  lea  measuring 
300  yards.  To  obtain  the  count  of  cotton  yarn  corresponding  to  the  count  of 
linen  yarn,  the  latter  number  is  divided  by  2.8.  In  the  French  system,  the  count 
of  linen  yarns  is  the  number  of  hanks  of  1000  metres  contained  in  500  grams. 
In  the  Austrian  system,  the  count  indicates  the  number  of  hanks  to  10  English 
pounds,  each  hank  containing  3600  ells  (i  ell=  30.68  inches). 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR  VEGETABLE  FIBRES. 

i.  Jute  is  a  fibre  obtained  from  the  bast  of  various  species  of 
Corchorus,  growing  principally  in  India  and  the  East  Indian 
Islands.*  The  most  important  variety  is  Corchorus  capsularis. 
or  Jew's  mallow,  which  is  grown  throughout  tropical  Asia  not 
only  as  a  fibre  plant,  but  also  as  a  vegetable.  Other  varieties 
are  C.  olitorius,  C.  juscus,  and  C.  decemangulatus;  the  latter  two, 
however,  yield  but  a  small  proportion  of  the  jute  fibre  to  be  found 
in  trade. f  The  jute  plant  grows  to  a  height  of  from  10  to  12 
feet  and  its  fibrous  layer  is  very  thick,  so  that  it  yields  from  two 
to  five  times  as  much  fibre  as  flax. 

The  Corchorus  capsularis  is  an  annual  plant,  growing  from 
5  to  10  feet  in  height,  with  a  cylindrical  stalk  as  thick  as  a  man's 
finger,  and  seldom  branching  near  the  top.  The  leaves,  which  are 
of  light  green  color,  are  from  4  to  5  inches  long  by  i  £  niches  broad 

*  Jute  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  about  the  year  1795.  It  has  been  used 
for  spinning  since  1830. 

f  The  commercial  fibre  known  as  Chinese  jute  is  not  a  variety  of  jute  at  all, 
but  is  derived  from  Abutilon  avicenna  or  Indian  mallow.  The  latter  grows  ex- 
tensively as  a  weed  in  America.  The  bast  fibre  is  white  and  glossy,  and  has 
considerable  tensile  strength.  It  is  also  used  for  the  making  of  paper  stock. 
Chemically  it  appears  to  consist  of  bastose,  and  hence  resembles  jute  in  its  be- 
havior towards  dyestuffs.  The  plant  produces  about  20  per  cent,  of  fibre,  but  is 
of  doubtful  economic  value.  Another  somewhat  similar  variety  is  the  Abutilon 
incanum,  which  grows  in  Mexico;  it  is  said  that  the  Indians  used  the  fibre  from 
this  plant  for  making  hammocks,  ropes,  and  nets,  which  are  so  durable  that  they 
last  from  seven  to  ten  years  in  constant  use.  There  are  also  several  East  Indian 
species  of  Abutilon,  among  which  may  be  named  A.  indicum,  A.  graveolens,  A. 
muticum,  and  A.  polyandrum,  all  of  which  are  fibre  plants  suitable  chiefly  for 
cordage;  the  latter  yields  a  long  silky  fibre  resembling  hemp.  The  A.  peri  ^loci- 
folium,  growing  in  tropical  America,  yields  a  very  good  bast  fibre,  quite  long, 
and  of  a  creamy  yellow  color. 

284 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      285 

towards  the  base,  but  tapering  upward  into  a  long  sharp  point 
with  edges  cut  into  saw-like  teeth,  the  two  teeth  next  the  stalk 
being  prolonged  into  thistle-like  points.  The  flowers  are  small 
and  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  coming  out  in  clusters  of  two  or 
three  together  opposite  the  leaves.  The  seed-pods  are  short  and 
globular,  rough  and  wrinkled  (see  Fig.  74,  A}.  The  C.  olitonus 
is  precisely  like  the  former  in  general  appearance,  shape  of  leaves, 


FlG.  74. — A,  seed-vessels  of  Cor  chorus  capsularis;    B,  seed-vessels  of  Cor  chorus 
olitorius.     (After  Bulletin  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

color  of  flower,  and  habits  of  growth;  but  it  differs  entirely  in 
the  formation  of  the  seed-pod,  which  is  elongated,  almost  cylin- 
drical, and  of  the  thickness  of  a  quill  (see  Fig.  74,  B). 

The  preparation  of  the  fibre  from  the  jute  plant  is  a  rather 
simple  operation.  The  stalks  are  freed  from  leaves,  seed-cap- 
sules, etc.,  and  retted  by  steeping  in  a  sluggish  stream  of  water. 
After  a  few  days  the  bast  becomes  disintegrated,  and  the  retted 
stalks  are  pressed  and  scutched.  The  fibre  so  obtained  is  re- 
markably pure  and  free  from  adhering  woody  fibre  and  other 


286  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

tissue.  The  prepared  fibre  usually  has  a  length  of  from  4  to  7  feet, 
possesses  a  pale  yellowish  brown  color,  though  the  best  qualities 
are  pale  yellowish  white  or  silver  gray,  and  exhibits  considerable 
lustre  and  tensile  strength.  The  ends  of  the  plant,  together  with 
the  various  short  waste  fibres,  appear  in  trade  under  the  name  of 
"  jute  butts  "  or  "  jute  cuttings,"  and  are  employed  as  a  raw  ma- 
terial for  paper-manufacturing. 

Kerr  (Report  on  Jute  in  Bengal,  1874)  enumerates  the  follow- 
ing varieties  of  jute  as  being  the  most  common  in  trade:  (a) 
Uttariya,  or  northern  jute,  by  far  the  best  variety,  as  it  possesses 
the  best  qualities  as  regards  length,  color,  and  strength;  it  is 
never  equal  to  the  Desi  and  Deswal  varieties,  however,  in  soft- 
ness, (b)  Deswal,  which  is  next  in  commercial  value,  is  chiefly 
desirable  on  account  of  its  softness,  fineness,  bright  color,  and 
strength,  (c)  Desi  jute  has  a  long,  fine,  soft  fibre,  but  it  has  the 
defects  of  being  fussy  and  of  a  bad  color,  (d]  Deora  jute  is 
strong,  coarse,  black,  and  rooty,  and  is  much  overspread  with 
runners;  it  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  rope,  (e)  Narain- 
ganji  jute  is  very  good  for  spinning,  being  soft,  strong,  and  long;, 
but  the  fibre  as  it  appears  in  trade  has  a  foxy  brown  color  which 
detracts  from  its  value,  though  this  defect  is  apparently  due  to 
imperfect  steeping.  (/)  Bakrabadi  excels  particularly  in  color  and 
softness,  (g)  Bhatial  jute  is  very  coarse,  but  strong,  and  is  in 
demand  for  the  manufacture  of  rope.  (h)  Karimganji  is  a  fine 
variety,  long,  very  strong,  and  of  good  color,  (i)  Mirganji  is  of 
medium  quality.  (/)  Jangipuri  jute  is  of  short  fibre,  weak,  and 
of  a  foxy  brown  color,  and  not  suitable  for  spinning. 

According  to  Hohnel,  the  bast-cells  of  the  jute  fibre  are  from 
1.5  to  5  mm.  in  length,  and  from  20  to  25  /JL  in  thickness,  the  mean 
ratio  of  the  length  to  the  breadth  being  about  90;  consequently, 
the  elements  of  the  jute  fibre  are  relatively  short.  In  cross- 
section  the  jute  fibre  shows  a  bundle  of  several  elements  bound 
together;  these  are  more  or  less  polygonal  in  outline,  with  sharply 
defined  angles.  Between  the  separate  elements  is  a  narrow 
median  layer  (see  Figs.  75  and  77),  which,  however,  does  not  give 
a  much  darker  color  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  than  the  cell- 
wall  itself.  The  lumen  is  about  as  wide,  or  at  times  even  wider, 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR    VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      287 

than  the  cell-wall,  and  in  cross-section  is  round  or  oval.  Longi- 
tudinally the  lumen  shows  remarkable  constrictions  or  irregular 
thicknesses  in  the  cell- wall  (see  Fig.  78),  though  towards  the  end 
of  the  fibre  the  lumen  broadens  out  considerably,  causing  the 
cell- wall  to  become  very  -thin.  Externally  the  fibre  is  smooth 
and  lustrous,  and  has  no  jointed  ridges  or  transverse  markings 
such  as  seen  in  linen  or  most  other  bast  fibres. 

In  its  chemical  composition  jute  is  apparently  quite  different 
from  linen  and  cotton,  being  composed  of  a  modified  form  of 


FIG.  75. — Jute  Fibre.     (Xsoo.)     a,  cross-sections;   b,  longitudinal  views;  c.  ends. 
(After  Cross  and  Bevan.) 

cellulose  known  as  lignocellulose  or  bastose.  Bastose,  properly 
speaking,  is  a  compound  of  cellulose  with  lignin.*  It  behaves 
quite  differently  from  cellulose  towards  various  reagents,  its  chief 
distinction  being  that  it  is  colored  yellow  by  iodin  and  sulphuric 

*  M  tiller  gives  the  following  method  for  the  isolation  of  pure  cellulose  from  jute : 
Two  grams  of  the  material  are  dried  at  from  110°  to  115°  C.  In  order  to  remove 
wax,  etc.,  it  is  next  treated  with  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  benzol,  and  is  subse- 
quently boiled  with  very  dilute  ammonia  water.  The  softened  mass  is  then 
pulverized  in  a  mortar,  and  placed  in  a  large,  glass-stoppered  flask  with  100  cc. 
of  water.  From  5  to  10  cc.  of  a  solution  of  2  cc.  of  bromin  in  500  cc.  of  water  are 
added,  until  a  permanent  yellow  is  obtained  after  standing  twelve  to  twenty-four 
hours.  The  substance  is  then  filtered,  washed  with  water,  and  heated  to  boiling 
with  water  containing  a  little  ammonia.  After  this  it  is  filtered,  washed,  and. 
again  treated  with  the  bromin  solution,  as  above  indicated,  until  a  permanent 
yellow  color  is  obtained.  The  fibre  is  then  boiled  with  dilute  ammonia,  and  on, 
filtering  and  washing  leaves  a  residue  of  pure  white  cellulose. 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


acid,  whereas  pure  cellulose  is  colored  blue.  With  dilute  chromic 
acid,  to  which  a  little  hydrochloric  acid  has  been  added,  jute 
gives  a  blue  color.  When  treated  with  an  ammoniacal  solution  of 
copper  oxide  the  fibres  swell  considerably,  but  do  not  readily 
dissolve.  With  chlor-iodide  of  zinc  jute  gives  a  yellow  color. 
The  following  table  gives  the  principal  reactions  used  to  dis- 
tinguish cellulose  from  bastose :  * 


Reagent. 

Cellulose. 

Bastose. 

lodin  and  sulphuric  acid.  . 
Anilin    sulphate   and   sul- 
phuric acid  

Blue  color 
No  change 

Yellow  to  brown  color 
Deep-vellow  color 

Basic  dyestuffs  
Weak  oxidizing  agents.  .  .  . 
Schweitzer's  reagent  

No  change 
No  change 
Quickly  dissolves 

Beco.nes  colored 
Q  aickly  decomj  oses 
owe!!?,  become.,  blue,  and  slowly 
dL  solves 

Analysis  of  jute  shows  it  to  consist  of  the  following : 


Constituents. 

Nearly  Color- 
less Specimen. 

Fawn  -colored 
Fibre. 

Brown 
Cuttings, 

Ash 

o  68 

Water  (hygroscopic)']"  

9-93 

0.64 

12.1:8 

Aqueous  extract  v  

i  .03 

1.63 

3  94 

Fat  and  wax  

o.  30 

0.32 

0.4? 

Cellulose  

64  24 

63  oc 

61   74 

Incrusting  and  pectin  matters  

24.41 

25-36 

21.29 

The  ash  of  jute  consists  principally  of  silica,  lime,  and  phos- 
phoric acid;  manganese  is  nearly  always  present  in  small  amount. 

Bastose  is  dissolved  by  the  usual  cellulose  solvents,  such  as 
zinc  chloride  and  Schweitzer's  reagent;  and  from  these  solutions 
the  lignocellulose  may  be  precipitated  by  dilution  or  acidifying 
respectively,  though  the  precipitation  is  never  complete,  there 

*  According  to  Cross  and  Bevan,  the  jute  fibre  may  be  regarded  as  an  anhydro- 
aggregate  of  three  separate  compounds:  (a)  A  dextrocellulose  allied  to  cotton, 
(b)  a  pentacellulose  yielding  furfural  and  acetic  acid  on  hydrolysis;  (c)  lignone, 
a  quinone  which  is  converted  by  chlorination  and  reduction  into  derivatives  of 
the  trihydric  phenols. 

f  According  to  Wiesner,  fresh  jute  contains  about  6  per  cent,  of  hygroscopic 
moisture  and  brown  jute  about  7  per  cent.  When  completely  saturated  with 
moisture  the  former  will  contain  about  23  per  cent,  and  the  latter  24  per  cent 
The  Turin  Congress  adopted  a  regain  of  13!  per  cent,  for  the  conditioning  of  jute. 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      289 


remaining   in  solution  from  10  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  original 
substance. 

The  chief  chemical  difference  between  jute  and  the  pure  cel- 
lulose fibres  is  in  the  ability  of  the  former  to  combine  directly 
with  basic  dyestuff  s.  In  fact  it  acts  in  this 
respect  similar  to  cotton  which  has  been 
mordanted  with  tannic  acid.  Jute  is  also 
more  sensitive  to  the  action  of  chemicals  in 
general  than  cotton  or  linen.  On  this  ac- 
count it  cannot  be  bleached  with  much 
success,  as  treatment  with  alkalies  and 
bleaching  powder  weakens  and  disinte- 
grates the  fibre  to  a  considerable  extent.* 

The  jute  fibre  is  relatively  weak  when 
compared  with  other  bast  fibres,  and  the 
chief  reasons  for  its  prominence  among  the 
textile  fibres  are  its  fineness,  silk-like  lustre,  FIG. 
and  adaptability  for  spinning.  The  plant 
is  also  easy  to  cultivate,  and  returns  a  large 
yield  of  fibre.  The  chief  defect  of  jute  is  its  lack  of  durability; 
when  exposed  to  dampness  it  rapidly  deteriorates;  and  even  under 
ordinary  conditions  of  wear,  the  fibre  gradually  becomes  brittle 
and  loses  much  of  its  strength.  The  bleached  fibre  is  especially 
liable  to  such  deterioration;  it  gradually  loses  its  whiteness,  and, 
evidently  due  to  oxidation,  becomes  dingy  and  yellowish  brown 
in  color. 

Jute  is  principally  used  for  the  making  of  coarse  woven  fabrics, 
such  as  gunny  sacks  and  bagging,  where  cheapness  is  of  more 
consequence  than  durability.!  It  also  finds  considerable  use  in 
the  tapestry  trade,  being  used  as  a  binding-thread  in  the  weaving 


76.  —  Jute  Fibre. 
(X3QO.)  (Micrograph 
by  author.) 


*  Samples  of  jute  fibre  exposed  for  two  hours  to  steam  at  2  atmospheres,  fol- 
lowed by  boiling  in  water  for  three  hours,  and  again  steamed  for  four  hours,  lost 
21.39  Per  cent,  by  weight,  being  about  three  times  as  great  a  loss  as  that  suffered 
by  hemp,  Manila  hemp,  phormium,  and  coir.  A  similar  test  for  jute  with  flax, 
hemp,  ramie,  and  other  fibres  showed  as  great  a  loss,  while  flax  lost  less  than  4 
per  cent,  and  ramie  a  small  fraction  under  i  per  cent. 

t  Jute  is  the  cheapest  fibre  used  in  American  textile  manufacturing,  and  it  is 
employed  in  greater  quantities  than  any  other  except  cotton  and  sisal. 


290 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


of  carpets  and  rugs.  On  account  of  its  high  lustre  and  fineness, 
it  is  also  adapted  for  the  preparation  of  cheap  pile  fabrics  for  use 
in  upholstery.  Of  late  years  a  variety  of  novelty  fabrics  for  dress- 
goods  have  also  been  made  from  jute,  used  in  conjunction  with 
woolen  yarns.  Jute  has  also  been  used  extensively  as  a  substitute 


FIG.  77. — Cross-section  of  Jute-straw.  Showing  transverse  section  of  portion  of 
bast  only,  giving  the  anatomy  of  the  fibrous  tissue,  the  form  of  the  bast- 
cells,  and  the  thickening  of  the  cell-walls.  (Cross  and  Bevan.) 

for  hemp,  for  which  purpose  the  former  is  rendered  very  soft  and 
pliable  by  treatment  with  water  and  oil.  A  mixture  of  20  parts 
of  water  with  2.5  parts  of  train-oil  is  sprinkled  over  100  parts  of 
jute  fibre.  It  is  left  for  one  to  two  days,  then  squeezed  and 
heckled,  whereby  the  fibres  become  very  soft  and  isolated.  Jute 
is  also  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  twine  and  smaller  sizes 
of  rope.  Owing  to  its  cheapness/  it  is  used  to  adulterate  other  more 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      291 

valuable  fibres,  but  due  to  its  tendency  to  rapid  deterioration,  its 
use  in  this  connection  should  not  be  encouraged.  The  "  jute 
butts  "  and  miscellaneous  waste  are  extensively  employed  as  a 
raw  material  in  the  manufacture  of  paper. 


FIG.  78. — Jute  Fibre.     (Xsoo.)     L,  lumen;    C,  constrictions  in  lumen;    E,  end 
of  fibre.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

2.  Ramie,  or  China  Grass,  is  a  fibre  obtained  from  th?  bast  of 
the  stingless  nettle,  or  Bcehmeria.  Alt  .oug  i  frequently  con- 
founded in  trade,  ramie  and  China  grass  are  in  reality  two  dis- 
tinct fibres.  The  former  (also  known  as  rhea)  is  obtained  from 
the  Bcehmeria  tenacissima,  which  grows  best  in  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries.  The  latter  is  obtained  from  Bcehmeria  nivea, 
which  grows  principally  in  the  more  temperate  climes.*  T  e 


*  The  rainie  plant  is  of  more  robust  habit  and  has  larger  leaves,  which  are 
green  on  both  sides;  hence  the  name  green  ramie,  which  its  fibre  sometimes  receives 
in  trade.  The  China  grass  plant  has  leaves  which  are  white  felted  beneath ;  hence 
the  name  -white  ramie  sometimes  given  to  its  fibre. 


292 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


two  species,  however,  are  so  similar  in  nature,  and  the  fibres  are 
so  universally  confounded  with  one  another,  that  it  is  only  possi- 
ble to  consider  them  as  a  single  substance,  which  will  be  done 
under  the  name  of  ramie.  The  plant  is  a  shrub,  reacVmg  4  to 
6  feet  in  height,  and  is  very  hardy.  It  is  cultivated  largely  in 
China  and  India,  and  has  also  been  grown  successfully  in  Amer- 
ica.* 

The  fibre  of  ramie  is  very  strong  and  durable,  probably  rank- 
ing first  of  all  vegetable  fibres  in  this  respect.f     It  is  also  the  least 


FIG.  79. — Ramie  Fibre.     (Xsoo.)     a,  sections;    b,  longitudinal  view;  c,  ends. 
(After  Cross  and  Bevan.) 

affected  by  moisture.  It  has  three  times  the  strength  of  hemp, 
and  the  fibres  can  be  separated  to  almost  the  fineness  of  silk. 
The  fibre  is  exceptionally  white  in  color,  being  almost  compa- 
rable to  bleached  cotton  hi  this  respect,  and  does  not  appear  to 


*  The  use  of  China  grass  or  ramie  was  probably  known  to  the  Chinese  at  a 
very  early  period;  some  writers  have  also  attempted  to  show  that  it  was  used  in 
Egypt  several  thousand  years  ago  contemporaneously  with  flax  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  mummy-cloths. 

t  From  experiments  made  on  the  tensile  strength  of  isolated  filaments  of  ramie, 
it  appears  that  this  fib'e  has  a  breaking  strain  of  from  17  to  18  grams.  Ramie 
degummed  in  the  laboratory  of  Fremy  showed  a  breaking  strain  of  from  21  to  22 
grams,  and  by  very  careful  degumming  it  has  been  possible  to  attain  a  strength  of 
from  35  to  40  grams.  Isolated  fibres  of  hemp  show  a  breaking  strain  of  only 
5  grams. 


JUTE,   RAMIE,    HEMP,   AND  MINOR    VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      293 


have  any  natural  coloring  matter  at  all.     It  also  has  a  high  lustre, 
excelling  linen  in  this  respect.* 

The  follow  ing  table  gives  the  chief  physical  factors  of  the  ramie 
fibre  in  comparison  with  the  other  principal  fibres: 


Ramie. 

Hemp. 

Flax. 

Silk. 

Cotton. 

Tension  
Elasticity     .  .    . 

IOO 

36 

25 
66 

13 

12 

80 

600 

Having  such  excellent  qualities  as  a  fibre,  it  would  be  natural 
tl:at  ramie  should  have  had  considerable  attention  bestowed  upon 


FIG.  80. — Ramie  Fibre.  (X34Q.)  v,  swollen  displacements;  r,  fissures;  e,  point 
or  end;  q,  cross-sections;  *',  inner  layers  of  fibre-wall;  /,  lumen;  sch,  strati- 
fications. (Hohnel.) 

it.     The  chief  difficulty  in  the  way  of  its  universal  and  wide-spread 
adoption  has  been  the  lack  of  an  efficient  process  for  properly 

*  Cottonized  ramie  is  fibre  on  which  the  degumming  process  has  been  carried 
too  far,  with  the  result  that  the  individual  filaments  have  been  more  or  less  sepa- 
rated into  their  elements;  the  fibre  is  white,  but  without  the  characteristic  trans- 
parency and  lustre  of  ordinary  ramie. 


204 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


decorticating  the  fibre  from  the  rest  of  the  plant.  In  China  and 
India,  where  this  fibre  has  long  been  employed  for  the  weaving  of 
the  finest  and  most  beautiful  fabrics,*  the  decortication  of  the 
fibre  is  carried  out  by  hand.  This,  of  course,  would  be  imprac- 
ticable in  western  countries. 


FIG.  8r. — Ramie  Fibre.  (X35Q.)  L,  lumen;  G,  granular  matter  in  lumen; 
S,  long  shreds  of  matter  in  lumen;  K,  knots  in  fibre.  (Micrograph  by 
author.) 

On  French  authority  it  is  stated  that  the  yield  of  decorticated 
fibre  from  the  green,  unstripped  stalks  amounts  to  about  2  per 
cent.,  and  of  degummed  fibre  about  i  per  cent.  Based  on  the 
weight  of  dry,  stripped  stalks,  the  yield  of  the  degummed  fibre 
wov.ld  be  about  10  per  cent. 

The  bast  of  the  ramie  cannot  be  removed  from  the  woody 
tissue  in  which  it  is  imbedded  by  a  simple  retting,  as  in  the  case  of 
flax  and  other  bast  fibres.  It  must  undergo  a  severe  mechanical 

*  The  brilliant  and  transparent  fabrics  known  in  China  as  A-pou  and  sold 
in  England  under  the  name  of  grass-cloth  are  made  from  ramie. 


JUTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      295 

treatment,  whereby  the  outer  bark  is  removed.  The  long,  fibrous 
tissue  so  obtained  consists  of  the  ramie  filaments  held  together  in 
the  form  of  a  ribbon  by  a  large  quantity  of  gum,  and  before  the 
fibres  can  be  combed  out  th's  gum  must  be  removed  by  chemical 
treatment.  The  gummy  matters  seem  to  consist  essentially  of 


FIG.  82. — Cross-section  of  Ramie-straw.  Showing  transverse  section  of  bast 
region  only;  the  bast-fibres  are  to  be  distinguished  by  their  large  area  from 
the  adjacent  tissue.  (Cross  and  Bevan.) 

pectose,  cutose,  and  vasculose.  In  the  degumming,  the  object  is 
to  remove  these  substances  without  affecting  the  cellulose  of  the 
fibre  proper.  The  vasculose  and  cutose  may  be  dissolved  by 
treatment  with  soap  or  caustic  alkalies  employed  under  pressure. 
The  adhering  pectose  can  then  be  detached  mechanically  by 
washirg. 


296  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Though  ramie  has  many  excellent  qualities  to  recommend  it 
as  a  textile  fibre  for  definite  uses,  nevertheless  it  lacks  the  elas- 
ticity of  wool  and  silk  and  the  flexibility  of  cotton.  As  a  result 
it  yields  a  harsher  fabric,  which  has  not  the  softness  of  cotton. 
Owing  to  its  smooth  and  regular  surface,  it  is  difficult  to  spin  to 
fine  counts,  as  the  fibres  lack  cohesion  and  will  not  adhere  to 
each  other. 

Microscopically  the  ramie  fibre  is  remarkable  for  the  large 
size  of  its  bast-cells.  These  are  from  60  to  250  mm.  in  length  and 


FIG.  83. — Ramie  Fibre.     (X42O.)     Showing  the  longitudinal  ridges  and  knot- 
like  cross-markings.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

up  to  80  ft  in  width.  The  diameter  of  the  fibre  is  also  charac- 
teristically uneven,  sometimes  narrow  with  heavy  cell-walls  and 
well-defined  lumen  and  at  other  times  broad  and  flat  with  an  in- 
distinct lumen,  but  showing  heavy  striations  along  the  fibre.  The 
ratio  of  the  length  of  the  fibre  to  its  breadth  is  about  2400.  The 
fibre  consists  of  pure  cellulose  with  no  indication  of  the  presence 
of  any  lignin  as  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  give  a  pure  blue  stain, 
and  anilin  sulphate  gives  no  color.  In  an  ammoniacal  solution 
of  copper  oxide  ramie  becomes  greatly  swollen,  but  does  not 
dissolve.*  Along  the  fibre,  joints  and  transverse  fissures  are 

*  The  ramie  fibre  gives  a  blue  coloration  with  the  chlor-iodide  of  zinc  reagent, 
and  rose-red  with  chlor-iodide  of  calcium;   white  ramie  gives  no  coloration  with 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      297 


of  frequent  occurrence  (see  Fig.  8:).  The  lumen  is  especially 
broad  and  easily  noticeable.  The  ends  of  the  fibre  elements  have 
a  thick-walled,  rounded  point,  and  the  lumen  is  reduced  to  a 
line.  At  places  the  lumen  appears  to  be  more  or  less  filled  with 
granular  matter,  and  sometimes  with  long  uneven  shreds  of 
matter,  evidently  dried-up  albuminous  matter.  The  cross-section 
of  the  fibre  (see  Fig.  So)  shows  usually  only  a  single  element  or  a 
group  of  but  a  few  members.  The  cross-section  is  also  quite 
large,  and  is  elliptical  in  shape;  the  lumen  appears  open,  and 
frequently  contains  granular  matter.  The  cross-section  also 
frequently  shows  strong  evidence  of  stratification.  The  fibres 
are  frequently  very  broad,  and  at  these  parts  are  flat  and  ribbon- 
like  in  form,  but  are  never  twisted  (see  Fig.  81). 

Miiller  gives  the  following  analysis  of  the  raw  fibre  of  samples 
of  both  China  grass  and  ramie: 


Constituent. 

China 
Grass. 

Ramie. 

Ash 

2  87 

e    6^ 

6   47 

Fat  and  wax  

O.  21 

°-59 

Cellulose  
Intercellular  substances  and  pectin.  .  . 

78.07 

6.  10 

66.22 

12.70 

3.  Hemp  is  a  name  applied  to  a  large  number  of  bast  fibres 
more  or  less  analogous  in  appearance  and  properties.*    Hemp 

anilin  sulphate,  but  green  ramie  gives  a  slight  yellow  color,  which  seems  to  indi- 
cate a  slight  degree  of  lignifaction  in  the  case  of  the  latter  fibre. 

*  Among  the  different  varieties  of  hemp  appearing  in  trade  may  be  enumerated 
the  following  (Dodge) : 

Ambari  (or  brown)  hemp Hibiscus  cannabinus 

Bengal  (or  Bombay)  hemp Crotalaria  juncea 

Black-fellow's  hemp Commersonia  fraseri 

Bowstring  hemp  (Africa) Sansevieria  guineensis 

Bowstring  hemp  (Florida) S.  longiftora 

Bowstring  hemp  (India) S.  roxburghiana 

Calcutta  hemp Jute 

Cebu  hemp M usa  textilis 

Colorado  River  hemp Sesbania  macrocarpa 

Cretan  hemp Datisca  cannabina 


298  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES 

proper,  or  the  so-called  common  hemp,  is  derived  from  the  bast 
of  Cannabis  saliva.  This  is  a  shrub  *  growing  from  6  to  1 5  feet  in 
height,  and  though  originally  a  native  of  India  and  Persia,  it  is 
now  cultivated  in  nearly  all  the  temperate  and  tropical  countries 
of  the  world.  At  the  present  time  it  is  quite  extensively  grown 
in  America,!  though  not  as  yet  in  sufficient  amount  to  satisfy  the 
home  consumption.  Russia  produces  an  enormous  quantity  of 
hemp;  in  fact,  this  fibre  forms  one  of  that  country's  staple  articles 

Cuban  hemp Furcrcea  cubensis 

False  hemp  (American) Rhus  typhina 

•    False  sisal  hemp Agave  decipiens 

Giant  hemp  (China) Cannabis  gigantea 

Hayti  hemp Agave  jostida 

Ife  hemp Sansevieria  cylindrica 

Indian  hemp Apocynum  cannabinum 

Jubbulpore  hemp  (Madras) Crotalaria  tenuijolia 

Manila  hemp Musa  textilis 

New  Zealand  hemp  (or  flax) Phormium  tenax 

Pangane  hemp Sansevieria  kirkii 

Pita  hemp Yucca  sp. 

Pua  hemp  (India) Maoutia  puya 

Queensland  hemp Sida  retusa 

Rangoon  hemp Laportea  gigas 

Roselle  hemp Hibiscus  sabdariffa 

Sisal  hemp Agave  r^g^da 

Sunn  hemp Crotalaria  juncea 

Swedish  hemp Urtica  dioica 

Tampico  hemp Agave  heteracantha 

Water  hemp Eupatorium  cannabinum 

Wild  hemp Maoutia  puya 

*  The  hemp  is  an  annual  plant,  with  a  straight  stalk,  and  elongated,  highly 
dentated  leaves.  The  latter  have  a  narcotic  odor,  and  occur  in  bunches  of  three, 
five,  or  seven.  The  flower  is  apetalous  and  develops  into  the  well-known  hemp- 
seed  on  maturity.  The  hemp  plant  is  dioecious;  that  is,  it  belongs  to  the  class 
of  plants  in  which  the  sexes  are  divided,  some  stems  bearing  only  clusters  of  male 
flowers  (panicles),  while  others  bear  only  female  flowers  (catkins).  The  female 
plant  grows  from  6  to  8  feet  in  height,  while  the  male  plant  (fimble  hemp)  is  shorter, 
f  Several  varieties  of  hemp  are  grown  in  this  country;  that  cultivated  in  Ken- 
tucky and  having  a  hollow  stem  being  most  common.  China  hemp  and  Smyrna 
hemp  are  also  grown,  and  in  California  Japanese  hemp  is  cultivated  and  gives  a 
remarkably  fine  product.  Five  varieties  of  hemp  appear  to  be  cultivated  in 
Europe:  the  common  hemp,  Bologne  hemp  (known  also  as  Piedmontese  hemp  or 
great  hemp),  Chinese  hemp,  small  hemp  (the  Canapa  piccola  of  Italy),  and  Ara- 
bian hemp.  The  latter  is  also  known  as  Takrousi  and  is  chiefly  cultivated  for 
its  resinous  principle,  from  which  hasheesh  is  obtained. 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.     299 

of  export.  Poland  is  also  a  large  producer.  French  hemp, 
though  not  grown  to  such  an  extent,  is  much  superior  in  quality 
to  that  from  either  Russia  or  Poland,  it  being  fine,  white,  and 
lustrous.  Italian  hemp  is  also  of  a  very  high  grade.  In  India 
hemp  is  not  grown  so  much  for  its  fibre  as  for  the  narcotic 
products  obtained.  Japanese  hemp  is  of  excellent  quality,  and 


FlG.  84. — Hemp  Fibres.     (X3<x>.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

appears  in  trade  in  the  form  of  very  thin  ribbons,  smooth  and 
glossy,  of  a  light  straw  color,  and  the  frayed  ends  showing  a  fibre 
of  exceeding  fineness.  Hemp  appears  to  have  been  the  oldest 
textile  fibre  used  in  Japan. 

The  hemp  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  plant  by  a  process  of 
retting  similar  to  that  employed  for  flax.*  The  method  of  dew- 
retting  is  chiefly  used;  that  is,  the  stalks  are  spread  out  in  the 
fields  until  the  action  of  the  elements  causes  the  woody  tissue 

*  The  plant  is  ready  for  pulling  when  the  lower  leaves  become  limp  and  the 
tip  of  the  stalk  turns  yellowish.  The  male  plants  are  pulled  first  and  the  female 
plants  about  2  to  3  weeks  later. 


3oo 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


and  gums  enclosing  the  fibres  to  decompose.*  Retting  in  pools 
of  water  has  been  practised  to  a  slight  extent,  but  evidently  not 
with  much  success.f  It  is  said  that  100  parts  of  raw  hemp  furnish 
25  parts  of  raw  fibre  or  filasse;  and  100  parts  of  the  latter  yield 
65  parts  of  combed  filasse  and  32  parts  of  tow.J 


FIG.  85. — Hemp  Fibres.     (X300.)     b,  longitudinal  views ;  c,  ends;   a  cross-sections. 
(After  Cross  and  Bevan.) 

The  seed  of  the  hemp  plant,  like  that  from  flax,  is  also  utilized 
for  the  oil  it  contains;  §  106  parts  of  seed  furnish  27  parts  of  oil. 

*Hemp  fibre,  prepared  by  water-retting  as  practised  in  Italy,  is  of  a  creamy 
white  color,  lustrous,  soft,  and  pliable.  It  makes  a  satisfactory  substitute  for 
flax,  and  is  used  for  medium  grades  of  nearly  all  classes  of  goods  commonly  made 
from  flax,  except  the  finer  linens.  When  prepared  by  dew-retting,  as  practised  in 
this  country,  the  fibre  is  gray,  and  somewhat  harsh  to  the  touch.  It  is  used  for 
yacht  cordage,  ropes,  fishing-lines,  linen  crash,  homespuns,  hemp  carpets,  and 
as  warp  in  making  all  kinds  of  carpets  and  rugs.  (Yearbook,  Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 

f  Baden  hemp,  which  is  a  much-prized  variety,  is  prepared  by  stripping  the 
bast  from  the  retted  stalks  by  hand.  The  product  is  entirely  free  from  shives. 

J  The  commercial  fibre  is  pearly  gray,  yellowish  or  greenish  to  brown  in  color, 
and  from  40  to  80  inches  in  length.  Its  fineness  of  staple  is  less  than  that  of  linen, 
though  its  tensile  strength  is  appreciably  greater.  The  best  qualities  of  hemp  are 
very  light  in  color  and  possess  a  high  lustre  almost  equal  to  that  of  linen.  The 
annual  production  of  hemp  fibre  is  about  600,000,000  pounds. 

§  Hemp  seed  yields  a  greenish-colored  oil  having  a  peculiar  odor.  It  is  used 
in  the  making  of  green  soap  for  the  preparation  of  artists'  colors  and  varnishes, 
and  in  some  localities  for  the  making  of  oil-gas.  Hemp  seed  is  also  used  as  a 
bird  food,  and  in  some  countries  (Russia)  is  an  article  of  diet. 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.     3O1 

So  this  forms  an  extensive  and  important  by-product  in  the  culti- 
vation of  hemp. 

Under  the  microscope  the  hemp  fibre  is  seen  to  consist  of 
cell  elements  which  are  unusually  long,  averaging  about  20  mm. 
in  length,  but  varying  from  5  to  55  mm.  The  diameter,  however, 
is  very  small,  averaging  22  /*,  and  varying  from  1 6  to  50  /*.  Hence 


FlG.  86. — Part  of  Cross-section  of  Hemp  Stalk.     (X2OO.)     B,  woody  tissue;   /, 
secondary  layer  of  fibres;  F,  main  layer  of  fibres.     (After  Le  Comte.) 

the  ratio  between  the  length  and  diameter  is  about  1000.  The 
fibre  is  rather  uneven  in  its  diameter,  and  has  occasional  attach- 
ments of  fragmentary  parenchymous  tissue.  In  its  linear  struc- 
ture the  fibre  exhibits  frequent  joints,  longitudinal  fractures,  and 
swollen  fissures.  The  lumen  is  usually  broad,  but  towards  the 
end  of  the  fibre  it  becomes  like  a  line  (see  Fig.  89).  It  shows 
scarcely  any  contents.  The  ends  of  the  filaments  are  blunt  and 
very  thick- walled,  and  often  possess  lateral  branches.  The  cross- 
section  generally  shows  a  group  of  cells  which  nearly  always  have 
rounded  edges  and  are  not  so  sharp-angled  and  polygonal  as  in 
the  case  of  jute.  There  is  also  a  median  layer  between  the  cells, 
which  is  evidenced  by  it  turning  yellow  on  treatment  with  iodin 
and  sulphuric  acid.*  In  the  section  the  lumen  appears  irregular 

*  The  intercellular  (median  layer)  matter  which  binds  the  elements  of  the 
hemp  together  sontains  vasculose,  and  even  the  cellulose  of  the  fibre  itself  appears 


302 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


and  flattened,  and  does  not  show  any  contents.  The  cell- walls 
frequently  exhibit  a  remarkable  stratification,  the  different  layers 
yielding  a  variety  of  colors  on  treatment  with  iodin  and  sul- 
phuric acid. 

When  examined  under  polarized  light,  hemp  shows  very  bright 
colors  similar  to  linen  and  ramie.     Hemp  also  gives  the  following 


FlG.  87. — Hemp  Fibres  Treated  with  Schweitzer's  Reagent.  (X3<x>.)  A,  strongly 
lignified  fibre;  B,  fibre  free  from  ligneous  matter;  i,  i,  skin  of  inner  canal; 
a,  external  ligneous  tissue;  s,  swollen  cellulose.  (After  Wiesner.) 

microchemical  reactions:  (a)  with  iodin-sulphuric  acid  reagent, 
bluish  green  coloration;  (6)  with  chlor-iodide  of  zinc,  blue  or 
violet,  with  traces  of  yellow;  (c)  chlor-iodide  of  calcium,  rose 
red  with  traces  of  yellow;  (d)  anilin  sulphate,  yellowish  green 

to  be  impregnated  with  this  substance.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  stratified  appear- 
ance of  the  cell-wall  when  the  fibre  is  treated  with  the  iodin-sulphuric  acid  reagent. 
When  the  hemp  fibre  is  viewed  longitudinally  and  is  treated  with  the  above  re- 
agent, a  green  color  is  obtained,  due  to  the  mixing  of  the  yellow  of  the  vasculose 
layer  and  the  blue  of  the  cellulose  layer.  By  this  means  hemp  may  readily  be 
distinguished  from  linen,  which  gives  a  characteristic  blue  color.  , 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.       3°3 

coloration;  (e)  ammoniacal  fuchsin  solution,  pale-red  colora- 
tion; (/)  with  Schweitzer's  reagent  the  hemp  fibres  swell  irregu- 
larly with  a  characteristic  appearance  (see  Fig.  87)  and  after  a 
while  dissolve  almost  completely,  leaving  only  the  fragments  of 
parenchymous  tissue. 

Hemp  is  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  microscopically  from 
flax;  but  the  two  may  readily  be  told  by  an  examination  of  the 


FIG.  88. — Fibres  of  Hemp.     (Xsoo.)     Showing  longitudinal  fissures  and  trans- 
verse cracks  and  jointed-like  structure.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

ends  of  the  fibres,  hemp  nearly  always  exhibiting  specimens  of 
forked  ends,  whereas  flax  never  has  this  peculiarity.  The  fibres 
of  hemp  are  also  less  transparent  than  those  of  linen,  and  the 
interior  canal  is  often  more  difficult  to  distinguish,  on  account 
of  the  numerous  striations  on  the  surface.  The  difference  in  the 
appearance  of  the  cross- sections  is  also  of  service  in  discriminating 
between  these  two  fibres.  Again,  the  parenchymous  tissue  which 
frequently  occurs  as  attached  fragments  to  hemp  fibres  is  rich  in 
star-shaped  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate,  and  this  is  scarcely  ever 
to  be  noticed  hi  the  case  of  flax.  A  peculiarity  to  be  noticed  in 
the  examination  of  hemp  is  the  occasional  presence  of  long  narrow 
cells  filled  with  reddish  brown  matter,  insoluble  hi  the  ordinary 


3°4 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


solvents.  These  cells  occur  between  the  fibres  as  well  as  in  the 
bast,  and  probably  contain  tannin.  They  are  not  to  be  found  in 
fl  x.  The  behavior  of  isolated  hemp  cells  with  ammoniacal 
copper  oxide  solution  is  also  quite  characteristic;  the  cell  mem- 
brane acquires  a  blue  to  a  bluish  green  color,  and  swells  up 
I'.ke  a  blister,  showing  sharply  denned  longitudinal  striations. 


FIG.  89. — Hemp  Fibres.     (X3oo.)     L,  lumen;    J,  joint-like  structure. 
(Micrograph  by  author.) 

The  inner  cell- wall  remains  intact  in  the  form  of  a  spirally  wound 
tube  contained  inside  the  strongly  swollen  mass  of  the  fibre. 

The  hemp  fibre  is  not  composed  entirely  of  pure  cellulose,  as 
it  gives  a  yellow  to  yellowish  green  coloration  with  anilin  sulphate, 
and  a  greenish  color  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid.  Both  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  caustic  potash  give  a  brown  coloration,  while 
ammonia  produces  a  faint  violet.  It  appears  to  be  a  mixture  of 
cellulose  and  bastose.  Muller  gives  the  following  analysis  of  a 
sample  of  the  best  Italian  hemp. 


JUTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      305 

Per  Cent. 

Ash 0.82 

Water  (hygroscopic) 8. 88 

Aqueous  extract 3 .    1 

Fat  and  wax r .   6 

Cellulose 77-77 

Intercellular  matter  and  pectin  bodies 9  •  31 

Hemp  appears  to  contain   more   hygroscopic  moisture  than 
cotton  or  linen.     Samples  examined  by  the  author  contained 


FIG.  90.— Sunn  Hemp.  (X325-)  L,  view  of  middle  portion;  v,  joints;  /, 
lumen;  s,  pointed  ends;  q,  cross-sections;  m,  outer  layer  of  fibre;  i,  inner 
layers.  (Hohnel.) 

8  per  cent,  moisture  compared  with  6  per  cent,  for  cotton  under 
the  same  conditions.  At  the  Roubaix  conditioning  house  the 
regain  allowed  on  hemp  is  12  per  cent.,  and  this  same  figure 
was  fixed  by  the  International  Congress  at  Turin. 

Hemp  is  principally  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  twine 
and  cordage,  for  which  its  great  strength  eminently  adapts  it;  and, 
besides,  it  is  a  very  durable  fibre,  and  is  not  rotted  by  water.  In 
this  respect  it  differs  very  essentially  from  jute.  It  is  seldom  used, 
however,  for  woven  textiles,  as  it  is  harsh  and  stiff,  and  not  suffi- 


306  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

ciently  pliable  and  elastic.  It  also  possesses  a  rather  dark  brown 
color,  and  cannot  be  successfully  bleached  without  serious  injury 
to  the  quality  of  the  fibre.* 


FIG.  91.— Leaf  and  Blossom  of  Crotalaria  juneea.     (After  Bulletin  U.  S. 
Dept.  Agric.) 

4.  Sunn  Hemp  is  the  bast  fibre  of  the  Crotalaria  juneea;  it 
is  also  known  by  the  names  of  Conkanee,  Indian,f  Brown,  and 

*  Cuban  hemp  of  trade  is  the  fibre  from  Purer  tea  cubensis,  a  plant  native  to 
tropical  America,  and  having  long  leaves  in  which  the  fibre  is  found.  The  fibre 
is  of  very  good  quality  and  is  similar  to  sisal  hemp.  Another  species,  the  F.  gi- 
gantea,  or  giant  lily,  also  gives  a  good  fibre  which  closely  resembles  sisal  hemp 
and  no  doubt  is  often  sold  in  trade  for  this  latter  fibre.  It  is  also  grown  in  tropi- 
cal America,  and  the  fibre  is  called  by  the  natives  fique,  and  is  principally  em- 
ployed for  the  making  of  bagging,  horse  blankets,  etc.  It  is  known  in  Venezuela  as 
cocuiza. 

fTrue  Indian  hemp  is  the  bast  fibre  from  Apocynum  cannabinum;  this  fibre 
is  a  light  cinnamon  in  color  and  is  long  and  tenacious.  It  was  principally  em- 
ployed by  the  North  American  Indians  who  made  bags,  mats,  belts,  and  cordage 


JUTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      307 

Madras  hemp.  It  grows  abundantly  in  the  countries  of  southern 
Asia,  and  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage.  It 
appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  fibres  mentioned  in 
Sanscrit  literature.*  The  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  plant  by  a 
system  of  retting  very  similar  to  that  of  flax.  The  fibre  ef  sunn 
hemp  is  of  a  better  quality  than  jute,  being  lighter  hi  color,  of 
a  better  tensile  strength,  and  more  durable  to  exposure,  f  Dr. 
Wright  gives  the  following  table  (page  308)  for  the  strength  of 
several  cordage  fibres.  % 

from  it.  Spon  mentions  Indian  hemp  under  the  common  name  of  "Colorado 
hemp,"  but  this  latter  name  really  belongs  to  the  fibre  from  Sesbania  macrocarpa. 

*  It  was  known  in  the  Institutes  of  Menu  under  the  name  of  Sana.     This  hemp 
was  also  probably  known  to  the  Chinese  at  a  very  remote  date. 

f  The  following  tables  of  comparative  tensile  strengths  for  various  cordage 
fibres  have  been  adopted  from  Royle's  work  on  The  Fjbrous  Plants  of  India;  the 
tests  were  made  on  ropes  of  the  same  size  and  1.2  metres  in  length. 
I.  COMPARATIVE  STRENGTH,  DRY  AND  WET. 

Dry,  Wet. 

Fibre.                                                                      Kilos.  Kilos. 

Hemp  from  Calcutta 72  86 

Sunn  hemp  (fresh  retted) 51  72 

"         "      (retted  after  drying) 27  35 

Jute  (Corchorus  cap sularis) 65  66 

' '     (C.  olitorius) 51  56 

"     (C.  strictus) 47  52 

Gambo  hemp  (Hibiscus  cannabinus) 52  60 

Roselle  hemp  (H.  sabdariffa) 41  53 

Hibiscus  abelmoschus 49  49 

Ramie  (Bcehmeria  tenacissima) no  126 

II.  COMPARATIVE  STRENGTH  OF  PREPARED  ROPES,  AND  AFTER  STEEPING  IN 
WATER  116  DAYS. 

Prepared  Ropes.  Water-soaked. 


Fibre.                                 Natural.    Tanned.    Tarred.  Natural. 

Hemp,  English 47  Rotted 

Hemp,  Calcutta 34            63             20  ' ' 

Coir 39  24 

Sunn  Hemp 31             31             27  Rotted 

Jute 31             31             28  18 

Linen,  Calcutta 17  Rotted 

Agave  americana 50             36             35  " 

Sansevieria  zeytanica 54             33             22  13 

J  According  to  Roxburgh,  similar  lines  of  jute  and  sunn  hemp  showed  the 
following  comparative  tensile  strengths : 

Dry.  Wet. 

Jute 143  j46 

Sunn  hemp 160  209 


308  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Pounds. 

Sunn  hemp 4°7 

Cotton  rope 346 

Hemp 290 

Coir 224 

In  appearance  sunn  hemp  is  very  similar  to  hemp,  both  to 
the  naked  eye  and  under  the  microscope.  The  essential  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  is  in  the  cross-section  (see  Fig.  90),  which 
shows  the  presence  of  a  very  thick  median  layer  of  lignin  between 
the  individual  cells.  The  lumen  in  the  cross-section  is  also 
usually  rather  thick,  and  often  contains  yellowish  matter  differ- 
ing in  these  respects  from  hemp,  in  which  the  lumen  is  flat  and 
narrow  and  always  empty.*  With  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  sunn 
hemp  gives  a  greenish  blue  coloration,  and  with  chlor-iodide  of 
zinc  brownish  blue.  -This  would  indicate-  that  the  fibre  is  of 
rather  pure  cellulose,  but  enveloped  with  a  layer  of  lignified 
tissue. 

Miiller  gives  the  following  analysis  of  raw  sunn  hemp: 

Per  Cent. 

Ash 0.61 

Water  (hygroscopic) 9 . 60 

Aqueous  extract 2 . 82 

Fat  and  wax 0.55 

Cellulose 80.01 

Pectin  bodies 6.41 

5.  Ambari  or  Gambo  Hemp  is  an  East  Indian  fibre  derived 
from  the  bast  of  Hibiscus  cannabinus.\  The  fibre  when  care- 


*  Another  variety  of  Crotalaria  used  for  its  fibre  is  the  C.  tenuijolia  from 
which  is  obtained  the  Jubbulpore  hemp.  This  fibre  is  said  by  some  to  be  superior 
to  that  of  Russian  hemp  (Cannabis  saliva),  its  relative  tensile  strength  being  95 
pounds  to  80  pounds  for  the  latter.  The  fibre  is  4  to  5  feet  in  length,  and  resem- 
bles the  best  St.  Petersburg  hemp.  The  fibre  C.  return  is  also  to  be  found  in 
India  under  the  name  of  sunn  hemp ;  C.  sericea  and  C.  striata  are  other  species 
which  are  also  employed  for  fibre. 

t  Another  variety  of  Hibiscus  which  is  sometimes  used  as  a  fibre  plant  is  the 
H.  esculentus,  or  common  okra.  The  bast  of  this  plant  at  one  time  attracted 
considerable  attention  in  the  Southern  States  as  a  possible  substitute  for  jute  m 
the  manufacture  of  bagging  for  cotton.  The  fibre  is  said  to  be  as  white  as  New 
Zealand  flax,  considerably  lighter  than  jute,  but  more  brittle  and  not  so  strong. 
The  filaments,  however,  are  smooth  and  lustrous  and  quite  regular.  It  is  used 
somewhat  in  India  for  the  manufacture  of  twine  and  cordage,  and  as  an  adul' 


JUTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      309 

fully  prepared  is  from  5  to  6  feet  in  length ;  it  is  of  a  lighter  color 
than  hemp,  and  harsher.  Its  tensile  strength  is  somewhat  less 
than  that  of  sunn  hemp.  Like  the  latter  fibre,  it  is  principally 
used  for  cordage,  though  it  is  also  employed  in  India  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  a  coarse  canvas.*  In  its  microscopic  characteristics 
ambari  hemp  is  very  similar  to  jute;  the  length  of  the  fibre  ele- 
ments varies  from  2  to  6  mm.  and  the  diameter  from  14  to  33  /*. 
The  median  layers  of  lignin  between  the  cells  are  broad,  and  are 
colored  much  darker  than  the  inner  layers  of  the  cell-wall  when 

terant  for  jute.  According  to  the  tests  of  Dr.  Roxburgh,  the  fibre  of  Indian  okra 
gave  the  following  results  compared  with  hemp  and  jute: 

Breaking  Strain,  Pounds. 
Dry.  Wet. 

Indian  okra 79  95 

Jute 113  125 

Hemp  (Bengal) 158  190 

Hibiscus  cannabinus 115  133 

H .  sabdariffa 95  117 

H.  strictus 104  115 

H.  furcatus 89  92 

The  bast  fibre  of  H.  tiliaceus  (the  majagua)  has  some  interest  in  the  fact  that, 
according  to  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Roxburgh,  it  does  not  rot  when  immersed  in 
water  for  a  long  period,  as  most  other  fibres  do.  His  results  were  as  follows:  A 
cord  of  this  fibre  when  white  had  a  breaking  strain  of  41  Ibs.,  when  tanned  62 
Ibs.,  and  when  tarred  61  Ibs.;  a  similar  cord  when  macerated  in  water  for  116 
days,  when  white  broke  with  40  Ibs.,  when  tanned  55  Ibs.,  and  when  tarred  70  Ibs. 
English  hemp  and  Indian  hemp  when  treated  in  the  same  manner  were  found 
to  be  rotten,  and  sunn  hemp  broke  with  65  Ibs.  and  jute  with  60  Ibs. 

*  The  fibre  is  said  to  be  white,  soft,  and  silky,  and  some  claim  it  to  be  more 
durable  than  jute  for  the  manufacture  of  coarse  textiles.  In  the  opinion  of  the 
author,  however,  these  qualities  of  this  fibre  have  been  somewhat  overestimated, 
as  it  is  not  as  white  and  soft  as  such  descriptions  would  lead  us  to  expect.  Ac- 
cording to  Dodge,  the  fibres  of  ambari  hemp,  as  compared  with  those  of  ordinary 
hemp,  are  of  a  paler  brown  color,  are  harsher,  and  adhere  more  closely  together, 
though  the  separate  fibres  are  further  divisible  into  fine  fibrils  which  possess  con- 
siderable strength  According  to  Watt,  the  fibres  of  ambari  hemp  are  largely 
employed  by  the  natives  of  India  for  the  manufacture  of  ropes,  strings,  and  sacks 
which  are  principally  used  among  the  agricultural  districts.  "The  length  of  the 
extracted  fibre  varies  between  5  and  10  feet;  the  fibre  is  somewhat  stiff  and  brittle, 
and  though  used  as  a  substitute  for  hemp  and  jute  is  inferior  to  both.  The  breaking 
strain  has  been  variously  estimated  at  115  to  190  pounds.  The  fibre  is  bright  and 
glossy,  but  coarse  and  harsh.  Samples  of  the  fibre  exposed  for  two  hours  to  steam 
at  2  atmospheres,  followed  by  boiling  in  water  for  three  hours,  and  again  steamed 
for  four  hours,  lost  only  3.63  per  cent,  by  weight  as  against  flax  3.50;  Manila 
hemp  6.07;  hemp  6.18  to  8.44;  and  jute  21.39  per  cent." 


3io 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


treated  with  iodin  .and  sulphuric  acid.  The  lumen  presents  the 
same  appearance  as  with  jute  (see  Fig.  92),  having  such  very 
marked  contractions  that  in  places  it  is  discontinuous.  The  ends 
of  the  fibres  are  very  blunt  and  thick- walled. 

6.  New  Zealand  Flax  differs  somewhat  from  the  preceding 
fibres  in  that  it  is  derived  not  from  the  bast,  but  from  the  leaves  of 


FlG.  92. — Gambo  Hemp.  (X325.)  e,  ends  with  blunt  points  and  wide  lumen; 
d,  lateral  branch;  /,  longitudinal  cutting,  with  v,  interruptions  in  lumen;  q, 
cross-sections,  with  L,  small  lumen ;  m,  median  layers.  (Hohnel.) 

the  Phormium  tenax.  Botanically  these  are  known  as  sclerenchy- 
mous  fibres.  Apart,  however,  from  this  histological  difference, 
such  fibres  are  very  similar  in  general  structure  to  ordinary  bast 
fibres.  Phormium  tenax  is  a  native  of  New  Zealand,  but  is  also 
found  distributed  in  other  portions  of  Australasia;  it  has  been 
introduced  into  several  European  countries,  and  is  also  cultivated 
to  quite  an  extent  in  California.  The  fibre  of  New  Zealand  flax 
is  very  white  in  color,  is  soft  and  flexible,  and  possesses  a  high 


JUTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND   MINOR    VEGETABLE  FIBRES-       311 

lustre.*    In  tenacity  it  appears  to  be  superior  to  either  flax  or 
hemp,  as  is  seen  by  the  following  comparative  figures  (Royle).f 

Pounds. 

New  Zealand  flax 23 . 7 

Flax 11.75 

Hemp 16. 75 

The  leaves  of  Phormium  tenax  reach  over  5  feet  in  length,  and 
the  fibre  is  separated  by  first  scraping  the  leaves  and  then  comb- 
ing out  the  separate  fibres.  No  process  of  retting  is  necessary,  as 
with  the  bast  fibres.  J  The  method  of  preparing  the  fibre,  how- 
ever, is  as  yet  very  unsatisfactory,  and  could  be  much  improved. 
The  amount  of  fibre  obtained  under  the  present  method  of  operat- 
ing is  from  10  to  14  per  cent,  on  the  weight  of  the  leaves,  although 
the  latter  contain  as  much  as  20  per  cent,  of  fibre. 

In  their  microscopical  characteristics  the  fibres  of  New  Zealand 
flax  are  remarkable  for  their  slight  adherence.  The  fibre  elements 
are  from  5  to  1 5  mm.  in  length  and  from  10  to  20  /*  hi  diameter,  and 
the  ratio  of  the  length  to  the  breadth  is  about  550.  They  are 
very  regular  and  uniformly  thickened,  and  the  surface  is  smooth, 
though  occasionally  exhibiting  wave-like  irregularities  in  the  cell- 
wall  (see  Fig.  94).  The  lumen  is  very  apparent,  but  is  generally 

*  The  fibre  is  40  to  60  inches  long,  nearly  white,  fine,  and  rather  soft  for  a  leaf 
fibre.  It  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  sisal  in  binder  twine,  baling  rope,  and  medium 
grades  of  cordage,  and  is  made  up  largely  in  mixtures  with  Manila  or  sisal,  except 
in  the  cheaper  tying  twines.  By  extra  care  in  preparation  and  hackling,  a  quality 
is  produced  almost  as  fine  and  soft  as  the  better  grades  of  flax,  and  when  thus 
prepared  it  may  be  spun  and  woven  into  goods  closely  resembling  linen.  (Year- 
book, Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 

t  Royle  also  furnishes  the  following  figures  for  the  breaking  strain  of  similar 

ropes  made  from  various  fibres : 

Breaking  Strain, 
Fibre.  Kilos. 

Coir 102 

Gambo  hemp 133 

Sansevieria  zeylanica 144 

Cotton 157 

Pita 164 

Sunn  hemp 185 

J  The  bundles  of  fibres  form  filaments  of  unequal  size,  which  are  easily  sepa- 
rated by  friction.  The  fibre  has  considerable  elasticity,  but  readily  cuts  with  the 
nail  (Dodge). 


3i2  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

narrower  than  the  cell- wall  and  is  very  uniform  in  its  width. 
The  ends  are  sharply  pointed  and  not  divided.  The  cross- 
section  shows  rather  loosely  adhering  elements  and  is  very 
round  in  contour,  the  lumen  being  either  round  or  oval,  and 


FIG.  93.— New  Zealand  Flax.     (X3oo.)     (After  Le  Comte.) 

is  empty.  No  median  layer  of  lignin  is  apparent  between  the 
elements,  though  the  fibres  themselves  are  completely  lignified. 
With  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  the  fibres  give  an  intense  yellow 


FlG.  94. — New  Zealand  Flax.     (X3<x>.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

coloration,  with  anilin  sulphate  a  pale  yellow,  with  chlor-iodide 
of  zinc  a  yellowish  brown,  with  ammoniacal  solution  of  fuchsin 
a  red;  with  Schweitzer's  reagent  the  fibres  are  rapidly  separated 
into  their  elements,  but  do  not  dissolve.  The  purified  fibre  of 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR  VEGETABLE  HBRES.       313 


New  Zealand  flax  is  rather  difficult  to  distinguish  microscopically 
from  aloe  hemp  or  from  Sansevieria  fibre,  except  by  the  rounded 
and  separated  cross-sections.  The  fibre  also  usually  contains 
a  substance  derived  from  the  sap  of  the  leaf,  which  possesses  the 
peculiarity  of  giving  a  deep  red  color  with  concentrated  nitric  acid. 
The  composition  of  the  fibre  is  as  follows  (Church) 

Per  Cent 

Ash o .  63 

Water 11.61 

Gum  (and  other  matter  soluble  in  water) 2 1 . 99 

i. 08 

1-69 

63 . oo 


Fat 

Pectin  bodies. 
Cellulose 


New  Zealand  flax  is  principally  employed  in  the  making  of 
cordage  and  twine  and  floor-matting,  though  the  best  fibre  can 
also  be  woven  into  cloth  resembling  linen  duck.  It  has  been  used 
extensively  in  the  United  States  for  the  making  of  "  staff,"  being 


FlO.    95. — Manila   Hemp.     (Xsoo.)     a,    cross-sections;     b,    longitudinal  views; 
c,  ends.     (After  Cross  and  Bevan.) 

mixed  with  plaster  for  this  purpose.*    The  chief  drawback  to  the 
fibre  of  New  Zealand  flax  is  its  poor  resistance  to  water. 

7.  Manila  Hemp  is  the  fibre  obtained  from  the  leaf-stalks  of 
the  Musa  textilis,  a  variety  of  plantain  which  is  a  native  of  the 

*  This  material  is  extensively  employed  for  the  building  of  temporary  struc- 
tures. It  was  used  on  most  of  the  structures  of  the  Columbian  Exposition  at 
Chicago. 


3 14  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Philippine  Islands.*  The  fibre  is  white  and  lustrous  in  appear- 
ance, light  and  stiff  in  handle,  and  easily  separated.  It  is  also  a 
very  strong  fibre,  and  of  great  durability.  In  the  Philippines  it 
is  known  as  abaca.-\  The  coarser  fibres  are  used  for  the  manu- 


FlG.  96. — Manila  Hemp.  (X325-)  q,  cross-sections;  /,  lumen  without  contents; 
J,  lumen  containing  granular  matter;  a,  silicious  skeleton  of  the  stegmata; 
b,  rows  of  stegmata,  flat  side;  c,  the  same,  narrow  side.  (Hohnel.) 

facture  of  cordage,  for  which  purpose  it  is  eminently  suited  on 
account  of  its  great  strength.}     The  relative    strengths  of  rope 

*  The  commercial  supply  of  Manila  hemp  is  obtained  from  the  Philippine 
Islands;  "cebu  hemp"  is  a  trade  variety. 

t  The  abaca  plants  attain  a  height  of  8  to  20  feet,  the  trunk  being  composed 
chiefly  of  overlapping  leaf-sheaths.  When  the  flower-bud  appears,  the  entire 
plant  is  cut  off  close  to  the  ground.  The  leaf -sheaths,  5  to  12  feet  in  length,  are 
stripped  off,  separated  tangentially  into  layers  a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  less  in  thick- 
ness, and  these  in  turn  split  into  strips  i  to  2  inches  in  width.  While  yet  fresh 
and  green  these  strips  are  drawn  by  hand  under  a  knife  held  by  a  spring  against 
a  piece  of  wood.  This  scrapes  away  the  pulp,  leaving  the  fibre  clean  and  white. 
After  drying  in  the  sun  the  fibre  is  tied  in  bunches  and  taken  to  the  principal  towns 
or  to  Manila  to  be  baled  for  export.  (Yearbook,  Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 

|  The  best  grade  of  Manila  fibre  is  of  a  light  buff  color,  lustrous,  and  very 
strong,  in  fine,  even  strands  6  to  12  feet  in  length.  Poorer  grades  are  coarser  and 
duller  in  color,  some  of  them  yellow  or  even  dark  brown,  and  lacking  in  strength. 
The  better  grades  are  regarded  as  the  only  satisfactory  material  known  in  com- 
merce for  making  hawsers,  ships'  cables,  and  other  marine  cordage  which  may  be 
exposed  to  salt  water,  or  for  well-drilling  cables,  hoisting  ropes,  and  transmission 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      315 

made  from  English  hemp  and  that  made  from  Manila  hemp  are 
about  10  to  12  respectively.  The  finer  fibres,  which  require  to  be 
selected  and  carefully  prepared,  are  woven  into  a  very  high  grade 
of  muslin,  which  brings  a  good  price  even  in  Manila.*  Under  the 
microscope  Manila  hemp  shows  fibre  elements  of  3  to  1 2  mm.  in 
length  and  16  to  32  fj.  in  width,  the  ratio  of  the  length  to  the 
diameter  being  about  250.  The  bundles  of  fibres  are  very  large, 
but  by  treatment  with  an  alkaline  bath  are  easily  separated  into 
smooth,  even  fibres.  The  fibres  are  very  uniform  in  diameter,  are 
lustrous,  and  are  rather  thin-walled.  The  lumen  is  large  and 
distinct,  but  otherwise  the  fibre  does  not  exhibit  any  markings. 
The  cross-sections  are  irregularly  round  or  oval  in  shape,  and  the 
lumen  in  the  section  is  open  and  quite  large  and  distinct  (see 
Fig.  95).  The  fibre  bundles  frequently  show  a  series  of  peculiar, 
thick,  strongly  silicified  plates,  known  as  stegmata.  Lengthwise 
these  appear  quadrilateral  and  solid,  and  have  serrated  edges  and 
a  round,  bright  spot  in  the  centre.  The  stegmata  may  be  best 
observed  after  macerating  the  fibre  bundles  in  chromic  acid  solu- 
tion; they  are  about  30  /*  in  length.  On  extracting  the  fibre  with 
nitric  acid,  then  igniting,  and  adding  dilute  acid  to  the  ash  so 
obtained,  the  stegmata  will  appear  in  the  form  of  a  string  of  pearls, 
frequently  in  long  chains  with  sausage-like  links,  a  very  peculiar 
and  characteristic  appearance.  The  lumen  often  contains  a 
yellowish  substance,  but  no  distinct  median  layer  is  perceptible 
between  the  fibres.  Manila  hemp  is  a  lignified  fibre,  and  givers 
a  yellow  color  with  anilin  sulphate;  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  give 
a  golden  yellow  to  a  green  color;  caustic  soda  colors  the  fibre  a 
faint  yellow  and  causes  a  slight  distension;  ammoniacal  copper 
oxide  causes  a  blue  coloration  and  a  considerable  swelling-! 

ropes  to  be  used  where  great  strength  and  flexibility  are  required.  The  best 
grade  of  binder  twine  is  made  from  Manila  hemp,  since,  owing  to  its  greater 
strength,  it  can  be  made  up  at  650  feet  to  the  pound  as  compared  with  500  feet 
for  sisal.  (Yearbook,  Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 

*  The  imports  of  Manila  hemp  into  the  United  States  during  1903  were  more 
than  500,000  bales  of  270  Ibs.  each.  During  the  past  ten  years  the  price  has 
ranged  from  4  to  14  cents  per  pound. 

f  Besides  the  Musa  textilis,  the  fibre  from  the  following  varieties  is  also  utilized  • 
Musa  paradisiaca,  M.  sapientium,  and  M.  mindanensis  from  India  and  islands 


3i6  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

According  to  Miiller,  the  composition  of  Manila  hemp  is  as. 
follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Ash i-°a 

Water ™-*S 

Aqueous  extract °-97 

Fat  and  wax 0-63 

Cellulose 64.72 

Incrusting  and  pectin  matters. . .  21 .83 

8.  Sisal  Hemp  is  the  fibre  obtained  from  the  leaves  of  the 
Agave  rigida,  a  native  of  Central  America;  *  it  is  also  grown  in  the 
islands  of  the  West  Indies  f  and  in  Florida.  J  The  fibre  has  a 

in  the  Pacific  Ocean;  M.  cavendishii  from  China;  M.  eusete  from  Africa.  The 
M.  sapientum  is  the  common  banana  plant  or  plantain.  According  to  Dr.  Royle, 
who  experimented  with  some  Indian  varieties  of  the  structural  fibre,  its  strength 
is  very  satisfactory.  His  results  are  as  follows :  A  Madras  specimen  bore  a  weight 
of  190  Ibs.,  while  one  from  Singapore  stood  360  Ibs.,  and  Russian  hemp  bore  190 
Ibs.  A  i2-thread  rope  of  plantain  fibre  broke  with  864  Ibs.,  when  a  single  rope 
of  pineapple  broke  with  924  Ibs.  Compared  with  English  and  Manila  hemps,  a 
rope  3!  inches  in  circumference  and  2  fathoms  long  gave  the  following  results: 
The  plantain,  dry,  broke  av  2,330  Ibs.  after  immersion  in  water  24  hours;  tested 
7  days  after  2,387  Ibs.;  and  after  10  days  immersion  2,050  Ibs.  Manila  and 
English  hemp,  dry,  gave  4,669  and  3,885  Ibs.  respectively. 

*  The  fibre  of  the  Agave  was  probably  used  by  the  ancient  Mexicans  and 
Aztecs.  Cloth  woven  from  this  fibre  was  known  as  "nequen,"  and  it  is  interest- 
ing to  know  that  the  Yucatan  name  of  the  commercial  sisal  hemp  at  the  present 
tune  is  "henequen." 

f  The  commercial  supply  of  sisal  hemp  is  produced  in  Yucatan,  only  smalt 
quantities  being  grown  in  Cuba  and  the  Bahamas. 

%  The  true  sisal  hemp  of  Florida  is  the  Agave  rigida,  but  there  is  also  a  false 
sisal  hemp  from  Florida,  which  is  frequently  confused  with  the  other.  This  false 
sisal  hemp  is  obtained  from  Agave  decipiens,  which  is  found  wild  along  the  coast 
and  keys  of  the  Florida  peninsula.  There  is  considerable  difference  in  the  habit 
of  A.  decipiens  and  A.  rigida;  the  former  throws  out  its  mass  of  leaves  from  the 
top  of  a  foot-stalk,  the  leaves  radiating  like  a  star,  and  the  color  being  in  strong 
contrast  with  the  surrounding  vegetation.  The  true  sisal  plant,  on  the  other 
hand,  sends  up  its  leaves  from  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  leaf  of  the  A. 
decipiens  is  also  shorter  and  narrower,  and  nearly  always  rolled  in  at  the  sides,  so 
that  the  cross-section  appears  like  the  letter  U;  the  color  is  a  bright  green;  the 
leaf  also  possesses  very  strong  and  sharp  spines.  The  leaf  of  the  A.  rigiia  is 
flatter  in  shape,  has  a  dark-green  color,  and  is  without  spines.  With  respect  to 
the  fibre  of  the  two  varieties,  that  of  the  A.  decipiens  is  whiter,  finer,  softer,  and 
greatly  deficient  in  strength.  Tampico  hemp,  or  Mexican  fibre,  is  obtained  from 
another  variety  of  Agave  known  as  A.  heteracantha.  It  is  a  structural  fibre  like 
the  others  derived  from  the  leaves.  It  is  stiff,  harsh,  and  bristle-like  though 
pliant,  and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  animal  bristles  in  the  manufacture  of  cheapo 


JUTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      31? 

light  yellowish  color,  and  is  very  straight  and  smooth;  it  is  princi- 
pally used  for  making  cordage,  for  which  purpose  it  is  quite 
valuable,  as  it  is  second  only  to  Manila  hemp  in  tensile  strength. 


FIG  97. — Manila  Hemp.     (X3oo.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

The  fibre  is  easily  separated  from  the  leaf,  and  does  not  require 
a  retting  process.*  In  their  microscopical  appearance  the  fibre 

brushes.  The  parenchym  or  pith  of  the  leaf  squeezed  out  in  the  extraction  of 
the  fibre  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  soap,  as  it  possesses  remarkable  detergent 
properties.  In  Mexico  the  fibre  is  commonly  known  as  "istle." 

*  Sisal  hemp  is  cleaned  from  the  leaves  by  machines  which  scrape  out  the  pulp 
and  at  the  same  time  wash  the  fibre  in  running  water.  It  is  then  hung  in  the 
sun  to  dry  and  bleach  for  from  one  to  three  days,  after  which  it  is  baled  for  mar- 
ket. More  than  600,000  bales,  averaging  about  360  Ibs.  each,  were  imported  by 
the  Unite  1  States  during  1903;  the  price  during  the  past  decade  has  varied  from 
2 1  to  10  cents  per  pound.  Sisal  fibre  of  good  quality  is  of  a  slightly  yellowish 
color,  z\  to  4  feet  in  length,  somewhat  harsher  and  less  flexible  than  Manila 
hemp,  but  next  to  that  the  strongest  and  most  extensively  used  hard  fibre.  It  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  binder  twine,  lariats,  and  general  cordage,  aside  from 
marine  cordage  and  derrick-ropes.  It  cannot  withstand  the  destructive  action  of 
salt  water,  and  its  lack  of  flexibility  prevents  it  from  being  used  to  advantage 
for  running  over  pulleys  or  in  power  transmission.  It  is  extensively  used  in  mix- 
tures with  Minila  hemp.  (Yearbook,  Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 


318  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

bundles  often  show  an  interlaced  formation  with  a  peculiar  spiral 
thickening.  The  fibre  elements  are  from  1.5  to  4  mm.  in  length 
and  fiom  20  to  32  ft  in  breadth,  the  ratio  of  the  length  to  the  diam- 
eter being  about  100.  They  are  usually  quite  stiff  in  texture,  and 
show  a  remarkable  broadening  towards  the  middle.  The  width 
of  the  lumen  is  frequently  greater  than  that  of  the  cell-wall. 
The  ends  are  broad,  blunt,  and  thick,  but  seldom  forked.  The 
cross-sections  are  colored  yellow  by  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid,  and 
show  no  evidence  of  a  median  layer  between  the  elements.  The 
sections  are  polygonal  in  outline,  but  often  have  rounded  edges, 
and  the  bundles  are  usually  close  together.  The  lumen  in  the  cross- 
section  is  large  and -polygonal  in  shape,  though  the  edges  of  the 
lumen  are  more  rounded  than  those  of  the  walls.  The  ash  obtained 
from  the  ignition  of  the  fibre  shows  the  presence  of  glistening 
crystals  of  calcium  carbonate,  which  are  derived  from  the  original 
crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  to  be  found  clinging  to  the  fibre  bundles. 
They  are  usually  in  longitudinal  series,  about  0.5  mm.  long,  and 
taper  off  at  the  ends  to  a  chisel  shape,  resembling  a  thick  needle 
in  form,  but  having  a  quadrilateral  cross-section. 

o.  Aloe  Fibre,  or  Mauritius  Hemp,  is  obtained  from  the  leaf  of 
various  species  of  aloe  plants  growing  in  tropical  climates.* 
The  principal  plant  employed  for  Mauritius  fibre  is  Furcrcea 
jcetida.  In  Porto  Rico  it  is  known  as  maguey,  but  is  not  to  be 
identified  with  the  Mexican  fibre  of  the  same  name;  in  Hawaii 
it  is  called  malino,  which  is  probably  a  corruption  of  manila. 
The  only  locality  in  which  the  fibre  is  produced  commercially  is 
the  island  of  Mauritius.  This  fibre  is  often  confounded  with 
that  of  the  Agave  americana,  but  it  is  of  different  origin.  Aloe 
fibre,  however,  is  very  similar  to  Sansevieria  fibre,  and  is  hardly 
to  be  distinguished  from  it  in  either  physical  or  microscopic  appear- 
ance.! The  fibre  elements  are  from  1.3  to  3.7  mm.  in  length  and 

*  The  commercial  supply  of  aloe  fibre  is  obtained  from  Africa. 

f  The  fibre  is  whiter  and  softer  than  other  hard  fibres,  but  it  is  weaker  than 
sisal.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gunny  bags,  halters,  and  hammocks,  but 
more  largely  for  mixing  with  Manila  and  sisal  in  making  medium  grades  of  cord- 
age. When  the  better  grades  of  cordage  fibre  (Manila  and  sisal)  are  abundant 
and  quoted  low  in  the  market,  Mauritius  is  likely  to  fall  below  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. (Yearbook,  Dept.  Agric.,  1903.) 


JUTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.      319 

from  15  to  24/1  in  breadth.     Although  uniformly  broad,  the  cell- 
wall  is  thin.     The  fibres  are  usually  cylindrical  and  not  flattened; 


FlG.  98. — True  and  False  Sisal.     A,  leaves  of  true  sisal  hemp  plant;    B,  leaves 
of  false  plant  showing  thorny  edges.     (After  Bulletin  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

they  show  occasional  fissure-like  pores  (see  Fig.  102).  The 
cross- sections  are  polygonal,  with  slightly  rounded  edges.  The 
lumen  is  usually  somewhat  broader  than  the  walls,  and  in  the 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES 


cross-section  is  polygonal  with  rounded  sides.  In  the  Sanse- 
vieria  fibre  the  lumen  in  the  cross-section  is  usually  larger,  and 
the  cell- walls  consequently  thinner;  furthermore  the  lumen  has 
a  sharp- edged  polygonal  form  (see  Fig.  109). 


FIG.  99. — Floridal  Sisal  Hemp.     Agave  decipiens.     (After  Dodge.) 

10.  Pita  Fibre  is  obtained  from  the  leaf  of  the  Agave  amer- 
icana  *  or  century  plant ;   it  is  also  known  as  aloe  fibre.     There 

*  The  Agave  is  a  genus  of  fleshy-leaved  plants  belonging  to  the  Amaryllidacece, 
chiefly  found  in  Mexico  and  Central  and  South  America.  They  are  called  "cen- 
tury" plants  because  they  flower  but  once.  From  some  of  the  Mexican  specie, 
there  is  obtained  a  distilled  liquor  known  as  mescal,  also  the  fermented  beverage 
called  pulque.  The  fibre  from  A.  americana  (maguey  plant)  is  a  structural  fibry 
composed  of  large  filaments  readily  separated  by  friction.  According  to  Spon 
the  agave  requires  about  three  years  to  come  to  perfection,  but  it  is  exceedingle 
hardy,  easy  of  cultivation,  and  very  prolific,  and  grows  in  arid  wastes  where 
scarcely  any  other  plant  can  live.  It  perishes  after  inflorescence,  then  sends  up 
numerous  shoots.  In  Mexico  5000  to  6000  plants  may  be  found  on  an  acre; 
the  average  number  of  leaves  is  40,  each  measuring  8  to  10  feet  long  and  i  foot 
•wide,  and  yielding  6  to  10  per  cent,  by  weight  of  fibre. 


JUTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR    VEGETABLE  FIBRES.    321 


FIG.  loo.— Sisal  Hemp.     (Xsoo.)      W,  cell-wall;    P,  end  of  fibre;    S,  spiral- 
shaped  sclerenchymous  tissue.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 


FIG.  101. — Mauritius  Hemp.     (X3oo.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 


322 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


are  several  varieties  of  this  fibre,  which  are  known  by  their 
Mexican  or  Indian  names.  The  best  known  of  these  are  the 
henequen  (Agave  saxi),  the  ixtle  (Agave  americana),  and  the 
lechuguilla  (Agave  heterccantha}.  The  latter  is  also  known  as 
Tampico  hemp.  The  henequen  is  principally  grown  in  Yucatan, 
and  was  extensively  used  and  highly  prized  by  the  ancient  Mex- 


FIG.  102. — Fibre  from  Aloe  speciosus.     (X325-)     e,  ends;    /,  longitudinal  view; 
q,  cross-section;  r,  fissure-like  pores  in  cell-walls.     (Hohnel.) 

cans,  and  still  is  at  the  present  time.  In  recent  years  it  has  been 
quoted  in  European  markets  at  $7.30  per  100  Ibs.  The  fibre  is 
white  to  pale  straw  in  color,  is  stiff  and  short,  has  a  rather  thin 
wall,  and  furthermore  is  liable  to  rot.  The  fibres  have  a  distinctive 
wavy  appearance,  and  another  peculiarity  is  its  great  elasticity. 
According  to  Royle,  Indian  pita  has  been  found  superior  in 
strength  to  either  coir,  jute,  or  sunn  hemp,  the  breaking  strain 
on  similar  ropes  made  of  these  materials  being  as  follows: 

Pounds. 

Pita 2519 

Coir 2175 

Jute 2456 

Sunn  hemp 2269 


IUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.     323 

Russian  hemp  and  pita,  on  comparison,  gave  a  relative  strength 
of  1 6  to  27.  Besides  its  use  as  a  cordage  fibre,  pita  is  also  em- 
ployed for  the  making  of  a  very  delicate  and  beautiful  lace  known 
as  Fayal.  In  its  microscopical  characteristics  pita  is  very  sim- 
ilar to  sisal  hemp. 

ii.  Pineapple  Fibre,  or  Silk  Grass,*  is  obtained  from  Ananas 
saliva  or  pineapple  plant.  This  fibre  has  great  durability  and  is 
unaffected  by  water.  It  is  very  fine  in  staple  and  highly  lustrous, 


FlG.  103. — Pita  Fibre.     (X3oo.)     Agave  americana.      (Micrograph  by  author.) 

and  is  white,  soft,  and  flexible.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  celebrated  pi'.a  cloth  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  According 
to  Taylor,  a  specimen  of  this  fibre  was  subdivided  to  one  ten- 
thousandth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  was  considered  to  be  the 
most  delicate  in  structure  of  any  known  vegetable  fibre.  Micro- 
scopically it  is  distinguished  from  all  other  leaf  fibres  by  the 
extreme  fineness  of  its  fibre  elements.  These  are  from  3  to  9 

*  This  term  "silk  grass,"  though  applied  to  this  fibre,  is  both  meaningless  and 
a  misnomer. 


3*4 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


mm.  in  length  and  from  4  to  8  //  in  thickness.  The  lumen  is  very 
narrow  and  appears  like  a  line.  The  cross-sections  are  polygonal 
in  outline  and  frequently  flattened.  The  sections  form  in  com- 
pact groups  which  are  often  crescent-shaped,  and  are  enclosed 
in  a  thick  median  layer  of  lignified  tissue. 


FlG.   104. — Pineapple  Plant.     (After  Dodge.) 

12.  Coir  Fibre  is  obtained  from  the  fibrous  shell  of  the  cocoa- 
nut.  For  the  preparation  of  the  fibre,  the  unripe  nuts  are  steeped 
in  sea-water  for  several  months,  after  which  the  fruit  is  beaten 
and  washed  away  with  water.  The  residual  reddish  brown 
fibrous  mass  is  decorticated  by  tearing  and  hackling  into  fibres 
about  10  inches  hi  length.  The  fibre  occurs  in  the  form  of  large, 
stiff,  and  very  elastic  filaments,  each  individual  of  which  is  round, 
smooth,  and  somewhat  resembling  horse-hair.  It  is  principally 
used  for  making  mats  and  cordage.  It  possesses  remarkable  te- 
nacity and  curls  easily.  In  color  it  is  cinnamon  brown.  It  possesses 
marked  microscopical  characteristics;  the  fibre  elements  are  short 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR    VEGETABLE  FIBRES.     325 

and  stiff,  being  frcm  0.4  to  i  mm.  in  length  and  from  1 2  to  24  [i  in 
diameter,  the  ratio  of  the  length  to  the  thickness  is  only  35.  The 
cell-wall  is  thick,  but  rather  irregularly  so,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  lumen  has  an  irregular  outline,  resembling  indentations 
(see  Fig.  107).  The  points  terminate  abruptly  and  are  not  sharp, 


FIG.  105. — Section  of  Cocoanut.     (1/5.)     a,  husk  containing  fibre;    b,  the  fruit 
or  edible  portion.     (After  Bulletin  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

and  there  appear  to  be  a  large  number  of  pore-canals  penetrating, 
the  cell-wall.  On  the  surface  the  fibre  bundles  are  occasionally 
covered  with  small  lens-shaped,  silicified  stegmata,  about  15  //  in 
breadth.  These  stegmata  fuse  together  on  ignition,  giving  a  blis- 
ter on  the  ash.  If  the  fibre  is  boiled  with  nitric  acid  previous  to 
its  ignition,  the  stegmata  then  appear  in  the  ash  like  yeast-cells 
hanging  together  in  the  form  of  round,  silicious  skeletons.*  The 
cross-section  of  the  fibre  is  oval  in  shape  and  yellowish  brown  in 
color,  and  enclosed  in  a  network  of  median  layers.  Coir  fibre  is 
employed  in  the  South  Seas  instead  of  oakum  for  caulking  vessels, 
and  it  is  claimed  that  it  will  never  rot.  The  principal  use  for 
coir,  however,  is  for  cordage  and  matting.  For  cable-making  it 

*  Coir  gives  the  following  microchemical  reactions:  with  iodin  and  sulphuric 
^cid,  golden  yellow;  with  anilin  sulphate,  intense  yellow;  Schweitzer's  reagent 
does  not  attack  the  fibre.  According  to  Schlesinger,  coir  contains  20.6  per  cent, 
of  hygroscopic  moisture. 


326  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

is  said  to  be  superior  to  all  other  fibres,  on  account  of  its  lightness 
and  great  elasticity.  It  also  has  a  great  resistance  to  mechanical 
wear.  Wright  gives  the  following  tests  on  various  cordage  fibres: 

Pounds. 

Hemp 100 

Coir 224 

Bowstring  hemp "...     316 

13.  Istle  Fibre,  otherwise  known  as  Tampico  fibre,  is  ob- 
tained from  the  leaves  of  several  species  of  Mexican  plants  which 


FIG.  106. — Coir  Fibre.     (X3oo.)     s,  serrations  in  wail  of  lumen;    p,  pores  in 
wall;    Si,    silicious   skeleton   from    stigmata.     (Micrograph   by   author.) 

are  principally  found  in  the  desert  table-lands  of  northern  Mexico. 
The  most  important  istle  fibres  are  Jaumave  lechuguilla,  Jaumave 
istle,  lechuguilla,  Tula  istle,  Palma  samandoca,  and  Palma  pita* 
The  principal  plants  yielding  the  fibre  are  Agave  lophantha,  A. 
lechuguilla,  and  Samuella  carnerosana. 

14.  Nettle  Fibre.f — This  fibre  is  used  to  some  extent  for  spin- 
ning, being  cultivated  for  this  purpose  in  certain  parts  of  Germany 

*  Palma  istle  fibre  is  15  to  35  inches  in  length,  usually  coarser  and  stiffer  than 
sisal,  yellow  in  color,  and  somewhat  gummy.  Tula  istle  is  12  to  30  inches  long 
and  nearly  white  in  color.  Jaumave  istle  is  20  to  40  inches  long,  rarely  longer, 
almost  white,  and  nearly  as  strong  and  flexible  as  sisal.  The  importations  of  istle 
fibre  into  the  United  States  have  increased  from  less  than  4000  tons  in  1900  to 
more  than  12,000  tons  in  1903.  Istle  fibre  has  long  been  used  as  a  substitute  for 
bristles  in  the  manufacture  of  brushes,  and  it  is  now  being  employed  in  increasing 
quantities  in  the  cheaper  grades  of  twine,  such  as  lath  twine,  baling  rope,  and 
medium  grades  of  cordage.  Introduced  at  first  as  an  adulterant  or  substitute  for 
better  fibres,  it  seems  destined  to  find,  through  improved  processes  of  manufac- 
ture, a  legitimate  place  in  the  cordage  industry.  If  machines  are  devised  for 
cleaning  this  fibre  in  a  satisfactory  manner,  it  is  thought  that  the  thousands  of 
acres  of  lechuguilla  plants  in  western  Texas  may  be  profitably  utilized. 

f  See  Wiesner,  Rohstofte  des  Pflanzenreiches,  vol.  2,  p.  214;  Moller,  Die  Nessel- 
jaser,  Polytechnische  Zeitung,  1883;  Hohnel,  Mikroskopie  der  Faserstoffe,  p.  52; 
Dodge,  Useful  Fibre  Plants,  p.  323. 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE  FIBRES.     327 

and  in  the  province  of  Picardy  in  France.     The  product  known 
by  the  specific  name  of  nettle  fibre  is  obtained  from  two  species 


FIG.  107. — Coir  Fibre.     (X3oo.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

of  the  stinging  nettle,*  Urtica  dioica  and  Urtlca  urena.  The 
Bcehmeria  (see  Ramie  and  China  grass)  are  also  nettle  plants, 
but  belong  to  the  stingless  variety.  The  Urtica  dioica  yields  the 


FIG.   108. — A  Leaf  of  Agave  heteracantha.     (After  Bulletin  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.) 

largest  amount  of  fibre,  but  of  large  diameter  and  very  thin  cell- 
wall  ;  the  fibres  from  the  second  species,  Urtica  urena,  are  much 

*  The  stinging  nettle  is  also  common  in  the  United  States;  it  grows  princi- 
pally on  waste  lands.  It  has  not  been  used  as  a  fibre  plant  in  this  country  how- 
ever. In  Sweden  it  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  for  its  fibre,  being  known  as 
Swedish  hemp;  it  is  used  for  cordage,  cloth,  and  fish-lines.  In  India  it  is  known 
as  Bichu  or  Chicru,  meaning  scorpion  or  stinger. 


328  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

smaller  in  diameter  and  have  a  thick  cell-wall,  resembling  linen 
fibres  to  a  great  extent;  its  chief  drawback  is  the  small  yield 
of  fibre  from  the  plant. 

The  nettle  fibre  appears  to  consist  of  pure  cellulose,  with 
occasional  traces  of  lignin  on  the  surface.  It  gives  the  following 
microchemical  reactions:  (a)  with  iodin-sulphuric  acid  reagent, 
blue  coloration ;  *  (6)  with  ammoniacal  fuchsin  solution,  no 
coloration;  (c)  with  sulphate  of  anilin,  no  coloration;  (d)  with 
chlor-iodide  of  zinc,  bluish  violet  coloration;  (e)  with  chlor- 
iodide  of  calcium,  rose-red  coloration. 

The  fibres  of  Urtica  dioica  vary  in  length  from  5  to  55  mm. 
(Vetillart)  and  in  diameter  from  0.020  to  0.080  mm.  Under  the 
microscope  the  fibres  are  characterized  externally  by  fine  oblique 
striations;  the  ends  of  the  fibres  are  finely  pointed. f  On  account 
of  the  thin  cell-wall,  the  nettle  fibre  gives  only  faint  colorations 
when  viewed  under  polarized  light.  In  Germany  the  nettle 
fibre  is  spun  into  a  greenish  colored  yarn  known  as  Nesselgarn, 
this  is  woven  into  a  cloth  called  Nesseltuch,  which  may  be 
bleached  to  a  pure  white,  and  much  resembles  linen  cloth. 

15.  Fibre  of  Urena  Sinuata. — The  plant  from  which  this 
fibre  is  obtained  is  a  small  shrub  growing  in  Asia  and  South 
America.  In  America  it  is  known  as  Caesar  weed;  in  Vene- 
zuela it  goes  by  the  name  of  Cadilla.  The  bast  fibre  resembles 
iute  in  appearance,  it  being  yellowish  in  color,  of  considerable 
brilliancy,  and  also  like  jute  it  deteriorates  in  moist  air.  The 
average  length  of  fibre  bundles  is  6  feet.  The  fibre-cells,  accord- 
ing to  Wiesner,  have  a  length  of  about  i  .8  mm.,  and  an  average 
diameter  of  15/1.  The  lumen  of  the  fibre  is  very  irregular  in 
width,  but  is  mostly  rather  broad,  though  not  so  large  as  that 
of  jute.  With  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  the  fibre  gives  a  yellow 


*  The  lumen  of  the  fibre,  especially  towards  the  ends,  is  often  filled  with  mat- 
ter which  gives  a  yellow  color  with  this  reagent. 

t  The  cross-sections  of  the  fibres  are  oval  and  show  thin  cell-walls,  which, 
however,  at  times  may  become  quite  thick,  owing  to  irregularities  in  the  struc- 
ture of  the  fibre.  The  fibre  is  souple,  long,  and  soft  to  the  touch;  like  ramie  it 
possesses  great  resistance  to  water;  it  is,  however,  comparatively  weak  in  strength, 
owing  to  the  thin  cell-wall  and  irregular  structure. 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGETABLE   FIBRES.     329 


color;  anilin  sulphate  also  gives  a  deep  yellow,  which  indicates 
strong  li^nification ;  Schweitzer's  reagent  produces  a  strong 
swelling  of  the  cell- wall.  There  may  often  be  observed  on  Urena 
fibres,  under  the  microscope,  cells  of  parenchymous  tissue  contain- 
ing crystalline  deposits.  The  ash  of  the  fibre  also  shows  aggre- 


FIG.  109. — Fibre  from   Sansevieria.     (X325-)     e,   ends;     /,   longitudinal    view; 
q,  cross-section;  r,  fissure-like  pores  in  cell-walls.     (Hohnel.) 

gates  of  calcium  carbonate,  a  feature  which  distinguishes  it 
from  jute. 

16.  Sansevieria  Fibres. — There  are  several  species  of  plants 
of  the  Sansevieria  group  which  are  used  for  fibre  purposes,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  principal  varieties: 

Sansevieria  cylindrica,  known  as  Ife*  hemp;  it  occurs  in 
South  Africa,  and  the  fibre  is  used  for  cordage.  It  is  said  to  be 
especially  adapted  for  cordage  used  in  deep-sea  soundings. 

Sansevieria  guineensis,  known  as  African  bowstring  hemp,  is 
grown  in  Guinea  and  in  tropical  America.  The  fibre  somewhat 
resembles  Manila  hemp  and  is  used  for  cordage. 

Sansevieria  kirkii,  known  as  Pangane  hemp;  it  grows  on  the 
mainland  opposite  the  island  of  Zanzibar;  the  fibre  is  very  long 
and  is  used  extensively  by  the  natives. 


33° 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Sansevieria  longiflora,  known  as  Florida  bowstring  hemp; 
the  fibre  is  strong  and  of  very  desirable  qualities,  and  is  said  to 
be  superior  to  sisal  hemp.  It  is  sufficiently  fine  to  be  employed 
as  a  spinning  fibre. 

Sansevieria  roxburghiana  is  grown  in  India,  where  it  is  known 
as  Moorva.  It  gives  the  true  "  bowstring  hemp,"  as  the  fibre 
is  highly  prized  by  the  natives  for  bowstrings  on  account  of  its 
great  strength  and  elasticity. 

Sansevieria  zeylanica  is  a  species  cultivated  in  Ceylon.  The 
fibre  is  shorter  than  other  varieties,  but  is  largely  used  for  making 
cordage,  mats,  and  coarse  cloth. 

The  Sansevieria  fibres  are  all  obtained  from  the  leaves  of 
the  plants;  these  vary  in  length  from  2  to  9  feet.  The  com- 
mercial fibre  consists  of  a  bundle  of  filaments.  The  fibre  ele- 
ments have  a  length  of  about  2  mm.  and  a  diameter  of  about 
20  [i,  and  are  characterized  by  a  large  lumen.  The  fibres  are 
lignified  and  are  often  accompanied  by  spiral-shaped  cells  of 
parenchymous  tissue.  In  strength  and  durability  Sansevieria 
fibre  is  almost  equal  to  Russian  hemp.  The  fibre,  of  Sansevieria 
zeylanica  is  very  similar  to  aloe  or  Mauritius  hemp,  and  is  often 
called  "  aloe  hemp." 

17.  Fibre  of  Sea  Grass. — This  is  the  fibre  of  Zostera  marina, 
a  seaweed  or  grass  which  is  to  be  foind  extensively  on  the 
seacoast  of  temperate  climates.     The  available  fibres  are  from 
i  to  2  feet  in  length,  and  consist  of  bundles  of  3  to  6  elements. 
The  latter  are  about  3  mm.  in  length,  with  a  diameter  of  about 
6  fjL,  hence  they  are  of  great  fineness.     They  apparently  consist 
of  pure  cellulose. 

18.  Raphia.* — This  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  cuticle  of  the 
leaves  of  the  raphia  palm  (Raphia  raffia),  which  grows  extensively 
hi  Africa.    The  leaves  are  very  long,  the  average  being  about  25 
feet.    The  fibre  occurs  in  the  form  of  flat  straw-colored  strips,  3 
to  4  feet  in  length  and  about  \  inch  in  width ;  from  these  ribbons 
(which  are  largely  used  for  plaited  textiles)  the  individual  fibres 
may  be  separated  as  fine  filaments.     The  fibre  elements  are  about 

*  Sometimes  spelled  "raffia." 


JUTE,  RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR   VEGE TABLE  FIBRES.      331 

1.7  mm.  in  length  and  14  /i  in  diameter.  Under  the  microscope 
the  surface  of  the  fibre  appears  irregular,  owing  to  the  occurrence 
of  fragments  of  parenchymous  tissue.  The  lumen  is  about  one- 
fifth  the  diameter  of  the  fibre.  With  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  the 
fibre  gives  a  yellow  coloration ;  with  chlor-iodide  of  zinc  a  similar 
color;  with  phloroglucol  and  hydrochloric  acid  a  reddish  colora- 


FlG.  no. — Raphia  Fibres.     (Xsoo.)    'E,  showing  spoon-like  end. 
(Micrograph  by  author.) 

tion.     Schweitzer's  reagent  causes  an  irregular  swelling  of  the 
fibre. 

19.  Bromelia  Fibres. — The  Bromelia  is  a  genus  of  plants 
having  very  short  stems- and  densely  packed,  rigid,  lance-shaped 
leaves,  the  margins  of  which  are  armed  with  sharp  spines;  they 
are  natives  of  tropical  America,  though  also  found  in  other  tropical 
countries.  The  principal  species  which  yield  fibre  are  the  fol- 
lowing: B.  karalas,  B.  pinguin,  B.  argentina,  B.  jastuosa,  B. 
sagenaria,  B.  sylveslris,  and  B.  serra.  In  Mexico  the  Bromelia 
is  cultivated  in  parts  as  a  textile  plant  and  a  fibre  is  obtained 
from  it  which  is  described  as  very  fine  and  from  6  to  8  feet  in  length 


332 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


By  reason  of  its  fineness  and  toughness,  it  is  used  for  making 
belts,  and  such  fabrics  as  bagging,  wagon-sheets,  carpets,  and 
also  for  cordage,  hammocks,  etc.  The  B.  pinguin  *  is  perhaps 
the  best  known  of  this  class  of  fibre  plants,  and  it  is  known  as 
the  wild  pineapple;  it  is  often  mistaken  for  an  allied  species,  the 


FIG.  in. — Fibres  of  Bromelia  karatas.     (X300.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

B.  sylvestris,  and  many  writers  have   confused   both   of  these 
varieties  with  the  fibre  of  the  common  pineapple.     The  wild 

*  Dr.  Baker  gives  the  botany  of  B.  pinguin  as  follows:  Acaulescent;  leaves 
100  or  more  in  a  rosette,  ensiform,  stiffly  erect  in  the  lower  half,  reaching  a  height 
of  5  to  6  feet,  i  J  to  2  inches  broad  at  the  middle,  tapering  gradually  to  the  point, 
green  and  glabrous  on  the  face,  thinly  white-lepidote  on  the  back,  armed  with  very 
large-toothed  pungent  brown  prickles;  peduncle  stout,  stiffly  erect,  about  a  foot 
long,  its  leaves  often  a  bright  red;  panicle  dense,  stiffly  erect,  i  to  2  feet  long;  axis 
and  branches  densely  mealy;  branch-bracts  oblong,  pale,  lower  with  a  rigid  spine- 
edged  cusp;  lower  branches  3  to  4  inches  long,  bearing  6  to  8  sessile  flowers; 
flower-bracts  minute,  ovate;  ovary  cylindrical,  very  pubescent,  about  a  inch 
long:  sepals  nearly  as  long,  with  a  densely  matted  tip;  petals  reddish,  densely 
matted  at  the  tip  with  white  tomentum.  about  ij  inches  longer  than  the  calyx; 
berry  ovoid,  yellowish  brown,  i  inch  in  diameter. 


JJTE,   RAMIE,  HEMP,  AND  MINOR  VEGETABLE  FIBRES.       333 

pineapple  fibre  mentioned  by  Morris  (of  the  Kew  Gardens)  as 
B.  pita  is  really  B.  karatas. 

The  B.  argentina,  known  as  caraguata,  is  an  allied  species, 
which  is  found  in  Argentina  and  Paraguay;  its  structural  fibre 
is  soft  and  silky  and  resembles  pineapple  fibre,  occurring  in  lengths 
of  from  4  to  6  fact  and  of  medium  strength.  The  B.  sylvestris  * 
gives  a  structural  fibre  which  is  very  long,  creamy- white,  fine,  and 
silky ;  it  is  used  in  Central  America  for  making  hunting  pouches 
and  finely  woven  textures.  The  name  of  "  silk  grass  "  and 
"  silk  grass  of  Honduras  "  has  been  given  to  this  species,  but  this 
is  a  rather  indiscriminate  name  and  is  applied  to  a  number  of 
widely  differing  fibres.  Some  writers  also  refer  to  this  fibre  as 
the  "  istle  "  or  "ixtle"  of  Mexico.f 

*  Dr.  Baker  gives  the  following  description  of  the  botany  of  B.  'sylvestris: 
Acaulescent;  leaves  ensiform,  rigid,  3  to  4  feet  long,  ij  inches  broad,  low  down, 
narrowed  gradually  to  the  point,  bright  green  on  the  face,  thinly  albo-lepidote  on 
the  back,  armed  with  strong-hooked  prickles;  peduncle  a  foot  or  more  long,  its 
leaves  reflexing,  the  upper  bright  red;  inflorescence  a  narrow  panicle  with  short 
spaced-out  corymbose  branches,  all  subtended  by  bright-red  bracts,  the  lower 
with  rigid  spine-edged  tips;  ovary  pubescent,  cylindrical-trigonous,  about  an 
inch  long;  sepals  nearly  as  long  as  the  ovaries;  petals  reddish,  not  matted  at 
the  tip,  protruding  \  inch  from  the  calyx. 

f  This  variety  is  also  given  the  name  Karatas  plumieri,  and  is  commonly 
known  as  Mexican  fibre,  Honduras  silk  grass,  and  wild  pineapple.  The  plant 
grows  throughout  tropical  America,  and  the  fibre  is  obtained  from  the  leaf  which 
grows  to  a  length  of  8  to  10  feet  and  is  armed  with  recurved  teeth  or  spines.  This 
fibre  has  been  much  confused  with  that  of  Bromelia  sylvestris.  The  botany 
of  the  plant  is  described  as  follows:  Acaulescent;  leaves  30  to  40  in  a  dense 
rosette,  rigid,  spreading,  ensiform,  4  to  8  feet  long,  J  to  2  inches  broad,  low 
•down,  narrowed  gradually  to  the  tip,  green  and  glabrous  on  the  face,  per- 
sistently white-lepidote  and  finely  lineate  on  the  back,  armed  with  large  pungent- 
hooked  marginal  prickles;  flowers  about  50  in  a  dense  sessile  central  capitulum, 
at  first  3  to  4  inches,  finally  6  to  8  inches  in  diameter,  surrounded  by  reduced 
ensiform  inner  leaves  tinged  with  red;  flower-bracts  scariose,  oblanceolate,  2\  to 
3  inches  long;  ovary  cylindrical-trigonous,  ij  inches  long,  clothed,  like  the  bracts 
and  sepals,  with  loose  brown  tomentum;  sepals  linear,  permanently  erect,  an 
inch  long;  petals  reddish,  glabrous,  exserted  \  to  $  inch  beyond  the  tip  of  the 
sepals,  united  in  a  tube  toward  the  base,  fruit  3  to  4  inches  long,  i  inch  diameter, 
pale  yellow,  with  an  edible  white  pulp,  tapering  from  the  middle  to  both  ends; 
seeds  globose,  dull  brown,  vertically  compressed,  £  inch  diameter.  The  fibre 
appears  to  be  used  locally  only  for  nets,  cordage,  sacking,  etc.  The  fibre  varies 
in  quality  according  to  the  age  of  the  plant,  that  from  the  young  leaves  being 
fine  and  white,  while  the  older  leaves  give  coarser  fibre.  It  has  been  pronounced 
.by  some  as  being  supeiior  to  Russian  flax  as  a  textile  fibre. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS   OF  TH2   TEXTILE   FIBRES. 

i.  IN  a  commercial  examination  of  manufactured  yarns, 
fabrics,  etc.,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  distinguish  between  wool, 
silk,  cotton,  linen,  jute,  hemp,  and  ramie.*  Under  wool  must 

*  Dodge  gives  a  list  of  American  commercial  vegetable  fibres,  the  total  number 
of  which  is  about  30,  of  which  the  more  important  are  as  follows: 
Six  bast  fibres: 

Flax,  Linum  usitatissimum. 

China  grass,  Bcehmeria  nivea  and  B.  tenacissima. 

Hemp,  Cannabis  saliva. 

jute,  Cor  chorus  capsularis  and  C.  olitorius. 

Sunn  hemp,  Crotalaria  juncea. 

Cuba  bast,  Hibiscus  tiliaceus. 

The  first  five  of  this  class  are  used  for  spinning  fibres,  while  the  latter 
finds  use  for  millinery  purposes. 
Two"  surf  ace  fibres: 

Cotton,  Gossypium  sp. 

Raphia,  Raphia  ruffia. 
Fifteen  structural  fibres,  representing  agaves,  palms,  and  grasses: 

Sisal  hemp,  Agave  rigida 

Manila  hemp,  Musa  textilis 

Mauritius  hemp,  Furcraa  gigantea      '  CordaSe  fibres- 

New  Zealand  flax,  Phormium  tenax  , 

Tampico  or  Istle,  Agave  heteracantha 

Bahia  piassave,  Attalea  junifera 

Para  piassave,  Leopoldinia  piassaba  [  Brush  fibres. 

Mexican  whisk  or  Broom  root,  Epicampes  macroura 

Cabbage  palmetto,  Sabal  palmetto 

Crin  vegetal,  Chamcerops  humilis 

Spanish  moss,  Tillandsia  usneoides         ^  ^  and  m  &bi^ 

Saw  palmetto,  Serenoa  serrulata 

Cocoanut  fibre,  Cocos  nucifera 

Esparto  grass,  Stipa  tenacissima,  a  paper  fibre. 

Vegetable  sponge,  Luffa  agyptica,  a  substitute  for  sponge. 
The  native  vegetable  fibres  of  the  United  States  that  are  produced  in  com- 

334 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.         335 

also  be  included  analogous  animal  hairs,  such  as  mohair,  cash- 
mere, etc.  Other  animal  fibres,  such  as  cow-hair  and  horse-hair, 
may  easily  be  distinguished  even  by  the  naked  eye.  Of  course 
there  are  numerous  other  fibres  of  vegetable  origin  which  are 
employed  more  or  less  for  textile  materials,  but  either  they  are 
not  liable  to  occur  in  conjunction  with  wool,  or  they  may  be 
readily  distinguished  from  the  latter  without  requiring  a  special 
examination. 

The  best  method  of  distinguishing  qualitatively  between  the 
various  fibres  above  mentioned  is  by  the  use  of  the  microscope, 
whereby  their  characteristic  physical  appearance  may  be  readily 
observed.  Each  of  the  fibres  in  question  presents  certain  micro- 
scopical peculiarities,  so  that  no  difficulty  is  encountered  in  dis- 
tinguishing between  them.  The  difference  in  the  microscopical 
appearance  of  these  fibres  may  be  comparatively  observed  by 
reference  to  the  figures  given  in  the  preceding  pages. 

2.  Qualitative  Tests. — A  rough  physical  test  to  distinguish 
between  animal  and  vegetable  fibres  is  to  burn  them«m  a  flame. 
Vegetable  fibres  burn  very  readily  and  without  producing  any 
disagreeable  odor;  animal  fibres,  on  the  other  hand,  burn  with 
some  difficulty  and  emit  a  disagreeable  empyreumatic  odor  re- 
sembling that  of  burning  feathers.  The  burnt  end  of  the  fibre 
is  also  characteristic,  vegetable  fibres  burning  off  sharply  at  the 
end,  whereas  animal  fibres  fuse  to  a  rounded,  bead-like  end. 

Tables  I  and  II  exhibit  the  characteristic  chemical  reac- 
tions of  the  principal  fibres,  and  by  suitably  employing  these 
tests  the  various  fibres  may  be  easily  distinguished  from  one 
another. 

The  reagents  employed  for  the  tests  in  the  tables  may  be 
prepared  as  follows: 

(1)  Madder  Tincture. — Extract  i  gin.  of  ground  madder  with 
50  cc.  of  alcohol,  and  filter  from  undissolved  matter. 

(2)  Cochineal  Tincture. — This  is  made  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  above,  using  i  gm.  of  ground  cochineal  insects. 

mercial  quantities  are  cotton,  hemp,  flax,  palmetto  fibre,  and  vegetable  hair 
from  Spanish  moss.  For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1896,  the  value  of  raw  vege- 
table fibres  imported  into  the  United  States  was  about  $20,000,000. 


336 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 
TABLE   I. 


Test. 

Wool. 

Silk. 

Linen. 

Cotton. 

DYESTUTF  TESTS. 

Nil 

Nil 

Orange 

Yellow 

Scarlet 
Red 

Scarlet 
Red 

Violet 
Nil 

Light  red 
Nil 

Acid  dyes  in  general  
Mikado  yellow  

Dyed 

Nil 

Dved 
Nil 

Nil 
Dved 

Nil 
Dyed 

ACTION  OF  VARIOUS 

SALTS. 

Zinc  chloride  

Partly  diss. 

Dissolves 

Fibre  undiss.,  yellow  color 

Stannic  chloride  

Nil 

Nil 

Black  color 

Violet  to  brown 

Nil 

Nil 

Mercury  nitrate  (Millon's) 

Red  to  brown 

Nil 

Nil 

Cupric  or  ferric  sulphate.  . 
Sodium  plumbite  

Black 
Black  ppt. 

Nil 

No  ppt. 

Nil 

Nil 

Ammoniacal  copper  oxide. 
Ammoniacal  nickel  oxide. 

Swells  only 
Undissolved 

Nil 

Dissolves 

Swells  and  partly  dissolves 
Undissolved 

(3)  Fuchsin  Solution. — Dissolve  i  gm.  of  fuchsin  (magenta) 
in  100  cc..of  water,  then  add  caustic  soda  solution,  drop  by  drop, 
until  the  fuchsin  solution  is  decolorized;  filter  and  preserve  in  a 
well-stoppered  bottle.     In  applying  the  test  with  this  reagent, 
the  mixed  fibres  are  treated  with  the  hot  solution,  then  well  rinsed, 
when  the  animal  fibres  will  be  dyed  red,  the  vegetable  fibres 
remaining  colorless. 

(4)  Zinc    Chloride    Solution. — Dissolve    1000    gms.  of    zinc 
chloride  in  850  cc.  of  water,  and  add  40  gms.  of  zinc  oxide, 
heating  until  complete  solution  is  effected. 

(5)  Stannic  Chloride  Solution. — This  may  be  prepared  by  dis- 
solving 15  gms.  of  stannous  chloride  (SnCl2)  in  15  cc.  of  concen- 
trated hydrochloric  acid,  then  gradually  adding  3  gms.  of  pow- 
dered potassium  chlorate  (KC1O3).     Dilute  to  100  cc.  with  water. 

(6)  Silver  Nitrate  Solution— -.5  gms.  of  silver  nitrate  (AgNO3) 
are  dissolved  in  100  cc.  of  water,  and  preserved  in  an  amber- 
colored  bottle. 

(7)  Mercury  Nitrate,  Mitten's  Reagent.— Dissolve  10  gms.  of 
mercury  in  25  cc.  of  nitric  acid  diluted  with  25  cc.  of  water  at  a 
lukewarm  temperature.     Mix  this  solution  with  one  of  10  gms. 
of  mercury  in  20  cc.  of  fuming  nitric  acid. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        337 

(8)  Copper  Sulphate  or  Ferric  Sulphate. — Dissolve  5  gms.  of 
these  salts  respectively  in  100  cc.  of  water. 

(9)  Sodium  PlumUte. — Dissolve  5  gms.  of  caustic  soda  in 
ico  cc.  of  water  and  add  5  gms.  of  litharge  (PbO),  and  boil  until 
dissolved. 

(10)  Ammoniacal  Copper  Oxide,  Schweitzer's  Reagent.* — Dis 
solve  5  gms.  of  copper  sulphate  in  100  cc.  of  boiling  water,  add 
caustic  soda  solution  till  the  copper  compound  is  completely  pre- 
cipitated, wash  the  precipitate  of  copper  hydrate  well,  then  dis- 
solve in  the  least  quantity  of  ammonia  water.    This  gives  a  deep 
blue  solution. 

(n)  Ammoniacal  Nickel  Oxide. — Dissolve  5  gms.  of  nickel 
sulphate  in  100  cc.  of  water  and  add  a  solution  of  caustic  soda 
until  the  nickel  hydrate  is  completely  precipitated ;  wash  the  pre- 
cipitate well  and  dissolve  in  25  cc.  of  concentrated  ammonia  and 
25  cc.  of  water.  This  solution  dissolves  silk  almost  immedi- 
ately, but  reduces  the  weight  of  vegetable  fibres  only  about  \ 
per  cent.,  and  of  wool  only  ^  per  cent. 

(12)  Caustic  Potash  or  Caustic  Soda. — Dissolve  10  gms.  of 
the  caustic  alkali  in  100  cc.  of  water. 

(13)  Sodium  Nitroprusside. — Dissolve  2  gms.  of  the  salt  in 
100  cc.  of  water. 

(14)  Lead  Acetate. — Dissolve  5  gms.  of  lead  acetate  crystals 
(sugar  of  lead)  in  100  cc.  of  water. 

(15)  Sulphuric  and  Nitric  Acids. — The  commercial  concen- 
trated acids  are  employed. 

(16)  Chlorin   Water. — Water  is  saturated   with   chlorin  gas 
obtained    by   acting  on   pyrolusite    (MnOg)    with  hydrochloric 

*  Bottcher  recommends  that  this  solution  be  prepared  as  follows :  A  glass  tube 
about  2  inches  in  diameter  and  24  inches  in  length  is  loosely  filled  with  thin  sheet 
copper  and  then  filled  up  with  ammonia  water.  After  a  few  minutes,  the  liquid 
is  drawn  off,  and  then  poured  over  the  copper  again.  This  process  is  repeated 
during  several  hours,  when  a  deep-blue  saturated  solution  of  ammoniacal  copper 
oxide  is  obtained.  Neubauer  recommends  to  precipitate  a  solution  of  copper 
sulphate  with  caustic  soda  in  the  presence  of  ammonium  chloride;  the  precipi- 
tate so  obtained  is  washed  several  times  by  decantation  and  finally  on  a  filters 
It  is  then  dissolved  in  the  least  quantity  of  ammonia  water.  Wiesner  prepare, 
the  solution  by  digesting  copper  turnings  with  ammonia  water  in  an  open  flask. 


338  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

acid.  The  solution  should  be  preserved  in  amber-colored 
bottles. 

(i  7)  lodin  Solution. — Dissolve  3  gms.  of  potassium  iodide  in  60 
cc.  of  water,  and  add  i  gm.  of  iodin.  Dilute  this  solution,  before 
using,  with  10  parts  of  water.  When  the  reaction  is  employed 
in  connection  with  sulphuric  acid,  the  latter  consists  of  3  parts  of 
concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  i  part  of  water,  and  3  parts  of  gly- 
cerol.  The  glycerol  has  the  effect  of  preventing  injury  to  the 
fibres,  and  at  the  same  time  brings  out  certain  details  of  the 
structure  when  the  fibres  have  previously  absorbed  the  iodin. 
The  fibres  are  moistened  first  with  the  iodin  solution  and  then 
with  the  sulphuric  acid  solution. 

(18)  Picric  Acid  Solution. — Dissolve  0.5  gm.  of  picric  acid  in 
ico  cc.  of  water. 

A  delicate  reaction  *  for  detecting  the  presence  of  vegetable 
fibres  in  wool  is  the  following:  The  sample  of  material  under 
examination  is  well  boiled  with  water  to  remove  any  finishing 
materials  that  might  be  present  and  interfere  with  the  reaction. 
Then  a  small  portion  of  the  sample  is  put  in  a  test-tube  with  i  cc. 
of  water  and  2  drops  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of  alpha-naphthol 
and  about  i  cc.  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid.  If  vegetable 
fibres  are  present,  they  will  be  dissolved  and  the  liquid  will  acquire 
«a  deep  violet  color  when  shaken;  the  animal  fibres  only  give  a 
yellow  to  reddish  brown  coloration  but  no  violet  tint.  If  thymol 
is  used  instead  of  alpha-naphthol,  a  beautiful  red  coloration  will 
be  produced  in  the  presence  of  vegetable  fibres.  Cross  and 
Bevan  have  devised  a  delicate  test  which  is  serviceable  for  detect- 
ing the  presence  of  vegetable  fibres  in  fabrics :  the  sample  of  the 
cloth  is  immersed  in  a  solution  of  ferric  chloride  and  potassium 
ferrocyanide,  when  any  vegetable  fibre  present  wili  be  colored 
blue. 

Lieberman  gives  a  test  to  distinguish  between  animal  and 
vegetable  fibres  as  follows:  The  fibres  are  boiled  with  a  solution 
of  magenta  which  has  previously  been  decolorized  by  the  addi- 
tion of  just  sufficient  caustic  soda ;  then  they  are  well  washed  and 

*  Molisch,  Dingl.  Polyt.  Jour.,  1886. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        339 


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340 


THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


placed  in  water  slightly  Acidulated  with  acetic  acid.  If  the  fibres 
are  of  animal  origin,  they  will  be  colored  a  deep  pink,  whereas 
cotton  and  linen  fibres  will  be  unaffected. 

Both  this  reaction  and  the  one  with  picric  acid  (see  Table  II) 
are  convenient  to  use  when  it  is  desirable  to  render  visible  the 
animal  fibres  in  a  mixed  yarn  or  fabric.  In  case  of  a  mixture  of 
wool  and  silk  fibres,  the  wool  may  readily  be  shown  by  placing 
the  sample  in  a  very  dilute  boiling  solution  of  caustic  soda  con 
taining  a  few  drops  of  lead  acetate  solution.  Any  wool  present 
will  be  turned  brown  by  this  treatment,  due  to  the  formation  of 
lead  sulphide  from  the  sulphur  which  forms  a  constituent  of  this 
fibre.  Silk  (and  also  cotton  or  other  vegetable  fibre)  will  not  be 
colored.  In  this  test,  of  course,  it  will  be  necessary  that  the 
sample  is  undyed,  or,  at  least,  that  all  coloring-matters  originally 
present  be  completely  removed. 

In  strong,  cold  sulphuric  acid  silk  quickly  turns  yellow  and 
dissolves;  cotton  disintegrates  slowly  without  color;  flax  and 
hemp  make  a  black  mixture,  and  wool  is  scarcely  affected.  Both 
silk  and  wool  turn  yellow  and  are  soluble  in  nitric  acid,  the  first 
more  speedily,  while  vegetable  fibres  are  slightly  affected.* 

The  following  analytical  table  showing  the  reactions  of  the 
more  important  vegetable  fibres  is  given  by  Dodge :  f 

TABLE   III. 


Fibre. 

lodin  and 
Zinc  Chlo- 
ride. 

lodin  and 
Sulphuric 
Acid. 

Cupram- 
monium. 

Anilin 
Sulphate. 

Phloro- 
glucol. 

Cotton  

Violet 

Blue 

Blue  solu- 

Flax.   

do. 

do 

tion 
do. 

do. 

do 

do. 

Pale  yellow 

Violet  red 

Tute.  .  . 

Brown  yel- 

do 

Deep  red 

Ramie  
Manila  hemp  

New  Zealand  flax  
Aloe  

low 

Dull  violet 
Yellow  to 
violet 
Golden 
yellow 
Yellow  to 

Dull  blue 

Green  blue 
Yellow 

do. 

Bluish 
Swells- 

yellow 
Yellow 
Yellowish 
do 

Red 
Pale  red 
Pink 

Cocoa  

brown 
do. 

bluish 

Bright  yel- 
low 

Purplish 

*  Seaman,  On  the  Identified  ion  oj  Fibres. 

t  Useful  Fibre  Plants,  Bulletin  No.  g  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture 


QUALITATIVE  A NA LYSIS  OF   THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES.        341 

The  solution  of  iodin  and  zinc  chloride  is  prepared  by  taking 
100  parts  of  zinc  chloride  solution  of  1.8  sp.  gr.,  adding  12  parts 
of  water  and  6  parts  of  potassium  iodide,  then  add  iodin  until 
vapors  of  the  latter  begin  to  form.  The  brown  liquid  thus 
obtained  should  be  preserved  away  from  light.  The  cupram- 
monium  solution  is  made  by  adding  sodium  carbonate  to  a  solu- 
tion of  copper  sulphate,  whereby  a  mixed  precipitate  of  copper 
hydrate  and  carbonate  is  obtained.  This  is  well  washed,  and 
treated  with  just  sufficient  ammonia  (of  0.91  sp.  gr.)  to  dissolve 
it.  The  solution  should  be  well  shaken  and  filtered  before  using. 
The  anilin  sulphate  is  used  as  a  i  per  cent,  solution;  this  reagent 
colors  cells  of  woody  fibre  pale  to  deep  yellow  in  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  woody  matter  present.  The  phloroglucol  reagent 
is  applied  as  follows:  first  a  drop  or  two  of  a  5  per  cent,  solution 
of  phloroglucol  in  95  per  cent,  alcohol  is  applied  to  the  fibre  under 
examination,  and  this  is  followed  by  the  addition  of  a  couple  of 
drops  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid.  Lignified  cells  will  be  stained 
red,  while  those  not  lignified  will  remain  colorless.  A  similar 
solution  of  anilin  hydrochloride  may  be  substituted  for  the  phloro- 
glucol, in  which  case  the  lignified  tissue  will  be  stained  yellow 
instead  of  red.  The  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  is  applied  in  a 
manner  similar  to  that  described  on  page  338. 

In  an  examination  of  a  sample  the  fibres  should  be  separated 
into  their  ultimate  cells  by  soaking  in  caustic  alkali,  then  rubbing 
between  the  fingers,  or  teasing  out  with  needles.  If  the  separa- 
tion of  the  cells  is  difficult  by  this  means,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  boiling  the  fibre  in  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  soda  or 
Labarraque  solution  (sodium  hypochlorite),  and  then  fraying  the 
fibre  apart  by  rubbing  in  a  mortar.  After  the  fibre  has  been 
divided  into  its  ultimate  cells,  they  should  be  spread  out  on  a 
slide  moistened  with  glycerol;  this  will  lessen  the  tendency  of 
the  cells  to  curl  up.  A  cover-glass  is  then  laid  on,  and  the  micro- 
scopical examination  is  made.  In  order  to  make  an  examination 
of  the  section  of  the  fibre  to  determine  the  diameter  of  the  cells, 
the  following  method  is  recommended:  An  imbedding  mass  is 
made  by  dissolving  70  gms.  of  clean  gum  arabic  in  an  equal 
weight  of  distilled  water;  then  4  gms.  of  isinglass  (gelatin)  are 


342  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

digested  in  16  cc.  of  cold  water  till  swollen,  and  heated  to 
complete  solution.  One-half  of  this  latter  solution  is  strained 
through  a  piece  of  fine  muslin  (the  rest  is  discarded)  and  mixed 
with  the  solution  of  gum  arabic;  10  to  12  cc.  of  glycerol  are 
added,  the  whole  is  well  mixed  and  warmed.  It  is  best  preserved 
in  small  bottles  containing  a  fragment  of  camphor.  On  cooling 
the  mixture  solidifies,  but  when  it  is  to  be  used  the  bottle  is 
warmed,  a  small  bundle  of  fibres  for  examination  are  tied  together 
and  saturated  with  the  glue,  drawing  the  fibres  out  carefully  till 
they  are  straight  and  parallel.  The  bundle  is  then  hung  up  and 
dried  for  1 2  hours,  after  which  it  will  be  firm  enough  to  cut  with 
a  microtome.  The  slices  thus  obtained  are  placed  on  a  slide, 
and  moistened  with  the  iodin  solution;  this  dissolves  the  glue, 
which  is  absorbed  by  strips  of  blotting-paper  and  thus  removed. 
With  soft  fibres  that  are  easily  cut,  a  section  may  be  more  simply 
obtained  by  soaking  in  melted  paraffin,  and,  after  cooling,  cutting 
on  the  microtome.  The  wax  may  be  removed  from  the  section 
by  dissolving  in  benzene  or  turpentine. 

Table  IV  shows  the  reaction  of  the  various  vegetable  fibres 
with  the  iodin- sulphuric  acid  reagent,  together  with  the  length 
and  diameter  of  the  ultimate  fibre-cells  in  millimetres. 

Allen  *  summarizes  in  Table  V  the  reactions  to  distinguish 
silk  qualitatively  from  other  fibres. 

3.  Distinction  between  Cotton  and  Linen. — As  it  is  often 
desirable  to  discriminate  between  these  two  fibres,  the  following 
tests,  as  suggested  by  various  authorities,  are  given: 

(1)  The  fibre  is  burnt: 
Cotton — burnt  end  tufted. 
Linen — burnt  end  rounded. 

(2)  The  fibre  is  immersed  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  for 
two  minutes,  washed  well  with  water,  then  with  dilute  ammonia 
water,  and  dried: 

Cotton — forms  a  gelatinous  mass  soluble  in  water. 
Linen — the  fibre  is  unaltered. 


*  Commer.  Org.  Anal.,  vol.  4,  p.  518. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES.        343 


344 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 
TABLE  V. 


Test. 

Silk,  Wool,  Fur,  or  Hair. 

Cotton  or  Linen. 

Heated  in  a  small  test- 
tube 

Brittle,  carbonaceous  residue, 
and  odor  of  burnt  feathers. 
Gases  and  condensed  mois- 
ture alkaline  to  litmus 

Charring  and  smell  of 
burning  wood.  Gases 
and  condensed  mois- 
ture acid  to  litmus 

Boiled  on  a  saturated  aque- 
ous  solution    of   picric 
acid  and  rinsed  in  water 

Dyed  yellow 

Unchanged 

Boiled  with  Millon's  rea- 
gent 

Red  coloration 

No  change  of  color 

Treated  with  cold  nitric 
acid  (1.2  sp.  gr.) 

Colored  yellow 

No  change  of  color 

Moistened  with  dilute  hy- 
drochloric acid  and 
dried  at  100°  C. 

Unchanged 

Becomes  rotten 

Heated  to  boiling  with  hy- 
drochloric acid 

Silk. 

Wool,  Fur,  or 
Hair. 

Mostly  undissolved 

Dissolved 

Swells,  without 
at  once  dis- 
solving 

Boiled  with  a  cone,  solu- 
tion of  basic  zinc  chlo- 
ride 

Dissolved 

Unchanged 

Unchanged 

Treated  with  cold  Schweit- 
zer's reagent 

Dissolved;  not 
precipita  ted 
by     addition 
of  salts 

Undissolved; 
dissolves  on 
heating 

Dissolved;        solution 
precipitated  by  addi- 
tion of  salts 

Treated  in  the  cold  with 
10  per  cent,  caustic  soda 

Undissolved 

Dissolved 

Undissolved 

Boiled  with  a  2  per  cent, 
solution  of  caustic  soda 

Dissolved;  so- 
lution    not 
darkened  by 
lead  acetate; 
negative    re- 
action    with 
sodium  nitro- 
prusside 

Dissolved;  so- 
lution gives 
black  or 
brown  pre- 
cipitate with 
lead  acetate 
and  violet 
color  w-i  t  h 
sodium  nitro- 
prusside 

Unchanged 

Behavior  with  Molisch's 
test 

Dissolved, 
with    little 
coloration 

U  n  d  i  ssolved, 
with  yellow 
or  brown  col- 
oration 

Dissolved,  with  deep 
violet  color 

QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES.          345 

(3)  The  fibre  is  treated  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  madder 
for  fifteen  minutes: 

Cotton — becomes  bright  yellow  in  color. 
Linen — becomes  dull  orange-yellow  in  color. 

(4)  The  fibre  is  treated  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  cochineal 
for  fifteen  minutes : 

Cotton — becomes  bright  red  in  color. 
Linen — becomes  violet-red  in  color. 

(5)  The  fibre  is  immersed  in  olive  oil  or  glycerol,  after  pre- 
viously being  boiled  in  water  and  well  dried: 

Cotton — remains  opaque  and  white. 

Linen — becomes  translucent  by  reason  of  the  oil  rising  by 

capillary  action  between  the  individual  filaments 

of  the  fibres. 

(6)  The  fibre  is  treated  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  rosolic 
acid,  and  then  with  a  concentrated  caustic  soda  solution: 

Cotton — remains  colorless. 
Linen — becomes  rose-red  in  color. 

(7)  The  fibre  is  treated  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  solu- 
tions: 

Cotton — becomes  pure  blue  in  color. 

Linen — gives  a  dull  blue  color.     This  test  is  satisfactory 
only  on  unbleached  linen. 

(8)  A  small  portion  of  the  sample  is  boiled  in  a  solution  of 
equal  parts  of  water  and  caustic  potash ;  at  the  end  of  two  minutes 
the  sample  is  raised  with  a  glass  rod  and  placed  between  several 
thicknesses  of  filter-paper  to  remove  the  excess  of  water: 

Cotton — remains  white  or  is  a  pale,  clear  yellow  in  color. 
Linen — becomes  dark  yellow  in  color.     This  test  is  adapted 
only  for  white  goods. 

(9)  Kuhlmann  recommends  the  use  of  a  cold  concentrated 
solution  of  caustic  potash  (1.6).     This  causes  unbleached  cotton 
to  shrink  and  curl  up,  and  to  become  gray  or  dirty  white  in  color; 
whereas  unbleached  linen  shrinks  more  than  cotton,  and  acquires 
a  yellowish  orange  color. 

(10)  The  fibres  are  boiled  in  water,  dried,  immersed  in  a 
saturated  solution  of  sugar  and  common  salt,  and  dried.     The 
separate  threads  are  then  ignited: 


346  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Cotton— leaves  a  black-colored  ash. 

Linen — leaves  a  gray-colored  ash. 

(n)  The  fibres  are  treated  with  a  i  per  cent,  alcoholic  solu- 
tion of  magenta  (fuchsin),  and  then  washed  with  a  weak  solution 
of  ammonia: 

Cotton — at  first  stained  a  rose  color  which  is  washed  out  by 
the  ammonia. 

Linen — the  rose  color  is  permanent. 

(12)  Herzog*  recommends  the  following  test  to  distinguish 
between  cotton  and  flax  in  a  woven  fabric :  A  small  piece  of  the 
cloth  is  cut  out  and  the  edges  are  fringed.  The  sample  is  then 
steeped  for  a  few  minutes  in  a  lukewarm  alcoholic  solution  of 
cyanin;  it  is  then  washed  with  water  and  treated  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid.  By  this  treatment  the  cotton  is  completely 
decolorized,  while  flax  retains  a  distinct  blue  coloration.  To 
make  the  blue  color  still  more  distinct,  the  material  should  be 
washed  free  from  acid  and  placed  in  ammonia.  The  coloration 
is  said  to  be  due  to  the  presence  on  the  flax  fibre  of  fragments 
of  epidermis  which  readily  absorbs  the  dyestuff. 

These  tests  will  only  satisfactorily  distinguish  linen  from 
cotton  when  the  former  is  unbleached.  Bleached  linen  shows 
scarcely  any  difference  from  cotton  in  the  tests. 

4.  Distinction  between  New  Zealand  Flax  (Phormium  tenax), 
Jute,  Hemp,  and  Linen. — The  following  series  of  tests  is  recom- 
mended to  distinguish  between  the  fibres  in  question: 

(i)  The  material  is  immersed  in  chlorin  water  for  one  min- 
ute, then  spread  on  a  porcelain  dish,  and  several  drops  of  ammo- 
nia water  added.  New  Zealand  flax  and  jute  become  at  first 
bright  red  in  color,  which  afterwards  changes  to  dark  brown; 
linen  and  hemp  acquire  a  much  lighter  shade,  such  as  clear 
brown,  orange,  or  fawn.  This  method  is  very  good  for  yarn  or 
unbleached  cloth,  and  is  particularly  well  adapted  for  testing  sail- 
cloth. French  hemp  retted  in  stagnant  water  is  colored  a  much 
deeper  shade  than  the  same  kind  of  hemp  retted  in  running  water; 
hi  either  case  the  color  is  much  darker  than  that  acquired  by 
linen.  For  testing  twine  this  method  is  said  to  give  excellent 

*  Zeit.  f.  Farben-  und  Text.  Ind.,  1905,  p.  u. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.         347 

results,  but  in  bleached  material  the  difference  in  the  shades  pro- 
duced is  not  very  marked. 

(2)  To  test  bleached  material,  the  sample  is  immersed  for 
one  hour,  at  36°  C.,  in  nitric  acid  containing  nitrous  oxide.   New 
Zealand  flax  assumes  a  blood-red  color,  while  linen  or  hemp  is 
tinted  pale  yellow  or  rose,  according  to  the  method  by  which  it 
was  originally  retted. 

(3)  A  sample  of  the  material  is  heated  in  concentrated  hydro- 
chloric acid.     Hemp  and  linen  will  not  become  colored,  whereas 
New  Zealand  flax  becomes  yellow  at  a  temperature  of  30°  to 
40°  C.,  then  becomes  red,  brown,  and  finally  black. 

(4)  A  sample  of  the  material  is  treated  with  a  solution  of 
iodic  acid.     Hemp  and  linen  are  not  affected,  but  New  Zealand 
flax  acquires  a  rose-red  color. 

(5)  Jute  is  distinguished  from  New  Zealand  flax  by  soaking 
the  fibres  for  two  to  three  minutes  in  a  solution  of  iodin,  and 
then  rinsing  several  times  in  a  i  per  cent,  solution  of  sulphuric 
acid  to  remove  excess  of  iodin.    Jute  acquires  a  characteristic 
reddish  brown  color;    New  Zealand  flax  becomes  clear  yellow 
in  color;    hemp  acquires  a  light  yellow  color,  and  linen  a  blue 
color.     It  will  be  found  best  to  untwist  the  separate  threads  pre- 
vious to  this  treatment.     For  the  preparation  of  the  iodin  and 
sulphuric  acid  solutions,  see  page  338. 

(6)  Jute  may  be  distinguished  from  flax  and  hemp  by  warming 
in  a  solution  containing  nitric  acid  and  a  little  potassium  chromate, 
then  washing  and  warming  in  a  dilute  solution  of  soda  ash,  and 
washing  again.    The  fibres  are  then  placed  on  a  microscope  slide, 
and  when  the  water  has  evaporated  a  drop  of  glycerol  is  added, 
In  a  short  time  the  characteristic  structure  of  jute  will  be  easily 
observable,  and  under  the  polariscope  (with  a  dark  field)  the  jute 
fibre  will  show  a  uniform  blue  or  yellow  color,  whereas  linen  and 
hemp  will  show  a  play  of  prismatic  colors.   Also  with  phloroglucol 
and  hydrochloric  acid,  jute  is  stained  an  intense  red,  while  linen 
remains  uncolored  and  hemp  acquires  only  a  reddish  tint. 

(7)  To   distinguish    accurately   between   linen    and   hemp  * 

*  Distinction  between  Manila  hemp  and  sisal. — In  their  characteristics  these  two 
fibres  are  very  similar  and  it  is  quite  difficult  to  distinguish  between  them.     This 


348  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

it  is  best  to  have  recourse  to  a  microscopic  examination.  The 
linen  fibres  will  appear  quite  regular  and  with  a  lumen  which  is 
often  reduced  to  a  mere  line,  while  the  hemp  fibre  shows  a  very 
large  lumen,  and  presents  a  rather  irregular  surface.  With  the 
•  iodin-sulphuric  reagent  hemp  gives  a  green  coloration,  while 
linen  gives  a  blue;  with  nitric  acid  linen  gives  no  color,  while 
hemp  shows  a  pale  yellow  coloration.  The  ends  of  the  linen 
fibres  are  pointed,  while  those  of  hemp  are  enlarged  and  spatula- 
shaped. 

5.  Ligneous   Matter   (derived   from   woody  tissue)   may   be 
detected  in  admixture  with  other  fibres  in  the  following  manner : 

(1 )  On  exposing  the  moistened  sample  to  the  action  of  chlorin 
or  bromin,  and  then  treating  it  with  a  neutral  solution  of  sodium 
sulphite,  a  purple  color  will  be  produced. 

(2)  If  the  sample  be  moistened  with  an  aqueous  solution  of 
anilin  sulphate,  an  intense  yellow  color  will  be  produced. 

(3)  If  the  sample  be  moistened  with  a  solution  of  phloro- 
glucol  of  \  per  cent,  strength,  and  then  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
an  intense  violet-red  color  will  be  produced.     Solutions  of  resor- 
cinol,  orcinol,  and  pyrocatechol  act  in  a  similar  manner. 

(4)  Woody  fibre  when  boiled  in  a  solution  of  stannic  chloride 
containing  a  few  drops  of  pyrogallol  gives  a  fine  purple  color, 
which  is  easily  seen  under  a  magnifying-glass. 

6.  Reactions  of  Bast  Fibres. — In  Table  VI,  by  Goodale,  are 
presented  reactions  for  the  principal  bast  fibres. 

7.  Systematic    Analysis   of    Mixed   Fibres. — Table    VII,    by 
Pinchon,  represents  an  attempt  to  give  a  systematic   qualitative 
analysis  of  the  most  important  textile  fibres.*    With  a  due  degree 
of  caution,  this  schematic  analysis  may  be  employed  with  con- 
may  be  done,  however,  with  more  or  less  accuracy  by  an  observation  of  the  color 
of  the  ash,  which  in  the  case  of  Manila  hemp  is  grayish  black,  while  sisal  leave* 
a  white  ash. 

*  The  fibre  is  first  treated  with  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  potash,  which 
causes  any  animal  fibre  to  dissolve,  the  vegetable  fibres  remaining  insoluble.  If 
lead  acetate  solution  is  added  to  the  fibre  after  treatment  with  caustic  potash,  if 
wool  is  present  it  will  become  dark,  owing  to  the  formation  of  lead  sulphide  from 
the  sulphur  existing  in  the  wool.  If  silk  is  suspected,  warm  in  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  will  cause  the  silk  to  darken  rapidly  and  the  wool  more  slowly. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.         349 


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QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES.         35* 

siderable  success,  though  confirmatory  tests  should  be  applied  to 
the  detection  of  each  fibre  indicated.  The  differentiation  be- 
tween the  various  vegetable  fibres  given  is  especially  difficult. 

8.  Identification  of  Artificial  Silks.— In  Table  VIII  are  given 
Hassac's  tests  to  identify  the  different  varieties  of  artificial  silks 
or  forms  of   lustra-cellulose,  and    also   the  distinction  between, 
these  latter  and  true  silk. 

9.  Distinction  between  True  Silk  and  Different  Varieties   of 
Wild  Silk. — True  silk  (from  Bombyx  mori]  rapidly  dissolves  (one- 
half  minute)  in  boiling  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid;    Senegal 
silk  (from  Faidherbia]  dissolves  in  a  somewhat  longer  time,  while 
yama-mai,  tussah,  and  cynthia  silks  require  a  much  longer  time 
for  complete  solution.     True  silk  is  also  rather  easily  soluble 
in  strong  caustic  potash  solution,   whereas  the  other  varieties 
of  silk  are  not.     The  most  approved  reagent,  however,  for  sepa- 
rating true  silk  from  the  wild  varieties  is  a  semi-saturated  solution 
of  chromic  acid,  prepared  by  dissolving  chromic  acid  in  cold 
water  to  the  point  of  saturation  and  then  adding  an  equal  volume 
of  water.     True  silk  is  completely  dissolved  on  boiling  in  this 
solution  for  one  minute,  whereas  wild  silk  remains  insoluble. 

Under  the  microscope  true  silk  can  readily  be  told  from  wild 
silks,  as  the  latter  fibres  are  broad  and  flat,  and  show  very  dis- 
tinct longitudinal  striations,  which  are  absent  in  true  silk.  Excep- 
tion must  perhaps  be  made  with  the  wild  silk  from  Saturnia 
spini,  which  can  scarcely  be  told  from  true  silk  by  a  micro- 
scopical examination.  With  regard  to  distinguishing  between 
the  different  varieties  of  wild  silks  themselves,  some  valuable 
information  may  be  gained  by  a  determination  of  their  relative 
diameters.  Hohnel  gives  the  following  values  for  the  greatest 
thickness  of  the  different  silks: 

True  silk  (Bombyx  mori) 20  to  25  ft 

Senegal  silk  (Faidherbia  bauhini) 30  to  35  ft 

Ailanthus  silk  (Attacus  cynthia) 40  to  50  ft 

Yama-mai  silk  (Anthercza  yama-mai} 40  to  50  ft 

Tussah  silk  (Bombyx  selene) 50  to  55  ft 

Tussah  silk  (Bombyx  mylitta) 60  to  65  ft 

According  to  Wiesner  and  Prasch,  the  breadths  of  the  single 
fibres  of  different  silks  are  as  follows: 


352 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


TABLE  VIII.— IDENTIFICATION  OF  ARTIFICIAL  SILKS. 


Reagent 

Natural  Silk. 

Collodion  Silk. 

Cellulose  Silk.          Gelatin  Silk. 

Water 

No  change 

Swell  up;    addition   of    alcohol    or    glycerin 
causes  contraction  again 

Cone,  sulphuric 
acid 

Swells  rapidly 
and     d  i  s  - 
solves 

Gradually  be- 
comes thin- 
ner and  dis- 
solves 

Only  dissolves 
on  heating 

Acetic  acid 

— 

Slight    swell- 
ing 

Slight    swell- 
ing 

Dissolves  o  n 
boiling 

Half-saturated 
sol.  of  chromic 
acid 

Dissolves  slow- 

iy 

Dissolves  in  the  cold 

Diphenylamin 
and    sulphuric 
acid 

Blue  color 

Caustic  potash, 
40% 

Dissolves  with- 
out color 

Swell  without  dissolving,  but 
color  liquid  yellow 

Dissolves  rap- 
idly 

Ammoniacal  cop- 
per solution 

— 

Swells  quickly 
and         dis- 
solves 

Swells  slowly 
and     d  i  s  - 
solves 

Insoluble;  col- 
ors liquid 
violet 

Alkaline  copper 
glycerin  solu- 
tion 

Dissolves  im- 
mediately at 
80°  C.  tus- 
sah  silk  dis- 
solves in  one 
minute  o  n 
boiling 

Unchanged 

Unchanged 

Dissolves  o  n 
boiling 

lodin  in  potas- 
sium iodide 

— 

An  intense  red  color  which   disappears  on 
washing 

lodin  and  sul- 
phuric acid 

Yellow 

Deep    violet- 
blue 

Pure  blue 

Yellowish  t  o 
reddish 
brown 

lodin  in  zinc 
chloride 

Becomes  yel- 
low and  dis- 
integrates 

Blue-  violet 

Gray-blue  to 
gray-violet 

Becomes  yellow 
and  disinte- 
grates 

Ignition 

Odor  of  burnt 
feathers 

No  odor 

No  odor 

Odor  of  burnt 
feathers 

QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES.         353 

Ailanthus  silk 7  to  27,  mostly  14  // 

Yama-mai  silk 10  to  45,  mostly  23  // 

Bombyx  mylitta 14  to  75,  mostly  42  /i 

Bo;j.byx  selene 27  to  41,  mostly  34  ft 

Senegal  silk 12  to  34,  mostly  22  (JL 

True  silk 9  to  21,  mostly  13  // 

True  silk,  ailanthus  silk,  and  Senegal  silk  do  not  show  any 
cross-marks,  or  only  very  faint  indications  of  such;  whereas  with 
tussah  silk  and  yama-mai  silk  the  cross-marks  are  very  distinct 
and  characteristic. 

The  microscopical  appearance  of  the  end  of  the  fibre  on  being 
torn  apart  also  serves  at  times  as  a  useful  means  of  distinguishing 
the  variety  of  silk;  true  silk,  tussah  silk,  and  yama-mai  silk 
show  scarcely  any  fraying  at  the  ends;  in  Senegal  silk  the  fraying 
is  very  noticeable  in  almost  every  fibre;  while  in  ailanthus  silk 
about  one-half  of  the  number  of  fibres  show  a  frayed  end.* 

*  Besides  the  wild  silks  mentioned  above,  there  are  a  few  others  of  lesser  im- 
portance, which  for  the  sake  of  completeness  are  herewith  described : 

r.  Saturnia  polyphemus,  a  North  American  variety,  consists  of  very  flat 
fibres,  with  large  air -canals  and  numerous  structural  filaments  separating  at  the 
edge  of  the  fibre;  coarse  lumps  of  adhering  sericin  are  frequent;  well-defined 
cross-marks  are  also  frequent.  The  single  fibre  is  about  33  JJL  in  width;  in  its 
polariscopic  appearance  these  fibres  very  much  resemble  ailanthus  silk. 

2.  Arryndia  ricini:    the  fibres  are  even   more  flattened  than    the  preceding 
and  resemble  a  thin  band  or  ribbon;   large  air-canals  are  of  frequent  occurrence; 
striations  very  apparent;   the  sericin  layer  is  in  places  very  thin,  and  sometimes 
apparently  lacking  altogether.     The  double  fibre  is  about  45  to  55  ft  in  width, 
and  4  to  6  /z  thick.     At  the  edge  of  the  fibre  frayed  ends  of  structural  filaments 
are  often  apparent.     Cross-marks  are  rather  ill-defined,  but  of  frequent  occur, 
rence.     The  sericin  layer,  though  thin,  is  quite  uniformly  developed. 

3.  Anther  aa  pernyi  has  a  very  flat  fibre,  resembling  a  ribbon;    it  does  not 
fray  out  at  the  ends,  and  shows  scarcely  any  single  filaments.     The  double  fibre 
measures  60  to  80  }Jt  in  width  and  8  to  10  {JL  in  thickness.     Cross-marks  are  rather 
few  and  indistinct.     The  sericin  layer  is  very  thin,  and  in  general  hardly  notice- 
able.    Moderately  sized  air-canals  are  present. 

4.  Saturnia  cecropia  occurs  in  Texas.     The  fibre  is  also  flat  and  ribbon-like 
in  form;    the  double  fibre  measures  60  to  90  ft  in  width  and  10  to  15  fi  in  thick- 
ness;   air-canals  are  frequent  and  large,  hence  the  fibre  usually  appears  rather 
dark  under  the  microscope.     The  cross-marks  are  very  distinct,  and  at  such 
points  the  fibre  is  much  broader.     The  fibre  is  usually  much  frayed  out  and  indi 
vidual  filaments  are  easily  distinguished.     The  sericin  layer  is  quite  thin,  but  very 
uniform. 

5.  Attacus  lunula  has  fibres  which  are  not  so  flat  as  the  preceding.     The 
double  fibre  is  25  to  35  fi  in  width  and  12  to  18  fi  in  thickness      The  air-canals 


354  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

By  the  use  of  the  polariscopic  attachment  to  the  microscope, 
considerable  differences  can  be  observed  in  the  interference  colors 
displayed  by  the  different  varieties  of  silks.  It  is  best  to  conduct 
these  observations  under  a  magnification  of  30  to  50  diameters; 
and  as  the  silk  fibres  are  more  or  less  ovoid  in  section,  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  same  fibre  will  give  a  different  color  phe- 
nomenon, depending  on  whether  it  is  viewed  from  the  narrow 
side  or  from  the  broad  side.  Hence,  to  obtain  trustworthy  results, 
the  appearance  of  the  same  side  only  of  the  fibres  should  be  com- 
pared. Also,  the  appearance  of  single  fibres  only,  and  not  of 
crossed  fibres,  should  be  taken.  Hohnel  gives  the  following 
description  of  the  appearance  of  the  different  silk  fibres  viewed 
in  polarized  light,  the  observations  being  made  with  a  dark  field, 
and  under  a  magnification  of  30  to  50  diameters : 

1.  True  silk:   (a)  broad  side,  very  lustrous,  of  a  bluish  or  yel- 
lowish opalescent  white;   the  same  color  is  nearly  always  to  be 
found  over  the  entire  breadth;    (b)  narrow  side,  exactly  similar 
to  the  preceding. 

2.  Yama-mai  silk:   (a)  broad  side,  generally  of  a  pure  bluish 
opalescent    white;    also  darker   bluish    to    almost    black   tones; 
nearly  all  of  the  colors  are  brilliant;    (b)  narrow  side,   shows  all 
colors,  very  brilliant  and  contrasted;   darker  and  blackish  tones 
also  occur. 

3.  Tussah  silk  (from  Bombyx  selene):    (a)  broad  side,  shows 
all  colors,  very  brilliant;    thickness  of  the  fibre  very  uneven, 
hence  the  colors  change  through  the  length;   the  thick  parts  are 
dark  blue  and  reddish  violet,  while  the  thinner  parts  are  yellow 
or  orange;    (b)  narrow  side,  shows  bright  red  and  bright  green 
colors,  though  often  but  slightly  visible;    the  colors  form  long 
flecks ;  often  only  dark  gray  to  black. 

4.  Tussah  silk   (from   Bombyx  mylitta):    (a)   broad  side,   a 
bluish  opalescent  white  prevailing;   also  brown,  gray,  and  black 
tones;   the  colors  occur  in  flecks  like  preceding,  though  scarcely 

are  fine  and  delicate;  and  the  fibre  shows  but  a  slight  degree  of  fraying.  The 
sericin  layer  is  very  thin  and  finely  granulated  on  the  surface;  in  places  it  has 
the  form  of  irregular  shreds.  The  fibre  as  a  whole  has  a  brownish  yellow  appear- 
ance, due  to  the  ochre-yellow  color  of  the  sericin  layer. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        355 

even  dark  blue,  but  mostly  bright  orange  to  red  or  brown;  (b) 
narrow  side,  color  a  dull  gray  with  bright  red  or  green  flecks;  the 
general  appearance  is  very  similar  to  the  preceding  silk. 

5.  Ailanthus  silk:    (a)  broad  side,  bright  yellow  or  yellow- 
brown  to  gray-brown  colors;    (b)  narrow  side,  nearly  all  colors, 
but  rather  soft  and  not  very  contrasted,  seldom  very  bright,  but 
rather  dull;  short  flecks  of  green,  yellow,  violet,  red,  or  blue. 

6.  Senegal  silk:    (a)  broad  side,  bright  yellowish  white,  gray 
to  brown,  seldom  bluish  white  in  color;    (b)  narrow  side,  faint 
and  dull  gray,  brown  to  blackish  colors,  seldom  bright  colors. 

10.  Micro-analytical  Tables. — The  following  micro-analytical 
tables  have  been  adopted  from  Hohnel  for  the  qualitative  deter- 
mination of  vegetable  fibres : 

I.   TABLE   FOR  THOSE   VEGETABLE   FIBRES   BOTANICALLY 
DESIGNATED   AS   HAIR   STRUCTURES. 

1.  (a)  Each  single  fibre  consists    of  a  single  cell (see  4). 

(b)  Each  fibre  consists  of  two  cells,  namely,  a  short,  thick, 

underlying  cell,  and  an  overlying  pointed,  principal  cell.  The 
fibres  are  grayish  brown,  scarcely  0.5  cm.  long;  hard,  woolly, 
lifeless,  thin-walled,  but  round-stapled.  Such  fibres  form  the 
thick  upper  coating  on  the  leaves  of  the  Cycada,  macrozamia  of 
New  South  Wales,  and  are  used  as  vegetable  hair  in  upholstery. 

(c}  Each  single  fibre  consists  of  a  series  of  cells,  hence  is  a 
cellular  fibre.  The  cells  are  golden  yellow  to  brown  in  color, 
generally  clinging  together,  and  empty.  The  fibre  as  a  whole  is 
highly  lustrous,  but  very  harsh  and  brittle;  very  thin-walled,  flat, 
and  ribbon-shaped;  frequently  twisted  on  its  axis;  broad  and 
0.5  to  2  cms.  long.  Such  fibres  form  the  thick  coating  on  the 
leaves  of  various  ferns  (Cibotium)  in  Asia,  Australia,  and  Chili. 
The  material  is  used  for  upholstery  under  the  name  of  pulu. 

(d)  Each  fibre  consists  of  numerous  cells  growing  side  by  side, 
or  of  several  series  of  such;  forms  the  so-called  tuft (see  2). 

2.  (a)  Hairs  straight,  stiff ;  white  to  dirty  yellow  in  color.. (see  3). 
(b)  Hairs  woolly,  tough,  brownish  violet  in  color,  4  to  6  mm. 

long;    consisting  of  long  cotton-like,  flat,  twisted,  spiral  cells, 


356  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

the  walls  of  which  are  frequently  thick  and  undulating;  the  con- 
tents of  the  cells  moderately  abundant,  yellow  to  violet,  and  in 
part  colored  red  with  hydrochloric  acid.  This  fibre  covers  the 
small,  egg-shaped,  flattened  fruit  of  the  new  Holland  plant 


FIG.  ii2.— The  Lesser  Cotton  Grass  (Eriophorum  latijolium).     (After  Dodge.) 

Cryptostemma  calendulaceum.    It  is  used  in  Australia  as  a  stuffing 
material. 

(c]  Hairs  woolly,  harsh,  reddish  yellow  in  color;  the  cells  are 
very  thin- walled,  colorless,  and  generally  empty;  in  places,  how- 
ever, filled  with  a  homogeneous  reddish  yellow  substance;  where 
two  cells  come  together  side  by  side  there  are  to  be  noticed  round 
spots.  The  individual  cells  are  relatively  broad,  extremely  varied. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        357 

and  irregularly  thick;  irregularly  bent  in  places  and  frequently 
knitted  together.  This  fibre  forms  the  coating  of  a  plant  (Hibis- 
cus?) growing  in  Cuba;  as  employed  for  upholstery  materials  it 
goes  by  the  name  of  Managua. 


FIG.  113. — Cotton  Grass  (Eriophorum  angustijolium).     (After  Dodge.) 

3.  (a)  The  hairs  are  i  to  3  cm.  long,  and  on  the  average  are  under 
50  ft  wide;  they  consist  of  two  layers  of  cells  which  grow  into  one 
another.  The  inner  walls  are  rough;  the  outer  walls  are  thin 
and  indented,  hence  lie  close  against  the  inner  portion;  the  sec- 
tion walls  are  quite  noticeable  and  thick;  the  tufts  end  in  2  to 
6  pointed,  often  hook- shaped  cells;  the  end  cells  show  numerous 
pores;  weakly  lignified.  This  fibre  consists  of  the  ripe  fruit 


358  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

spicula  of  cotton-grass,  Eriophorum  angustifolium,  E.  latifolium, 

etc Cotton-grass  (see  Fig.  1 14). 

(b)  The  fibres  are  5  mm.  long;  mean  breadth  of  the  tufts 
8  to  16  fi,  the  widest  being  under  30  /*;  the  tufts  do  not  end  with 
sharp-pointed  cells;  the  section- walls  under  low  magnification 
appear  as  little  knots  and  are  usually  quite  noticeable.  This 
fibre  is  obtained  from  the  small,  lance-like  fruit  of  the  reed 
mace,  Typha  angustijolia,  which  grows  on  a  small  shaft,  and 


FIG.  114. — Fibres  of  Cotton  Grass  or  Vegetable  Silk.   (  X5o.)  The  sharp  fractures 
show  the  brittle  nature  of  the  fibre.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

carries  the  hairs  on  the  other  end.     It  is  used  for  upholstery  and 
other  filling  material Reed-mace  hair  (see  Fig.  115). 

4.  (a)  The  fibres  are  flat,  woolly,  frequently  twisted  in  a  spiral 
manner  on  their  axes;    not  lignified (see  5). 

(&)  The  fibre  is  generally  cylindrical,  stiff,  not  twisted;  some- 
what lignified,  hence  colored  red  with  indophenol  or  phloro- 
glucol (see  6). 

5.  (a)  Fibres  i  to  5  cm.  long;    white  to  yellowish  brown;    12 
to  42  ft  thick •. Cotton  (see  Fig.  116). 

(b)  Fibres  only  9.5  cm.  long;  very  thin;  usually  consisting  of 
tufts;  violet-brown  in  color.  See  above,  under  2  (6). 

Cryptostemma  hairs. 

6.  (a)  The  product  consists  of  grassy  spicula  with  a  hairy  cover- 
ing;  the  hairs  are  5  to  8  mm.  long  and  about  10  to  15  //  wide; 
the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  thick,  cylindrical-pointed  hairs 


QU-ALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        359 


remains  rather  uniform  up  to  the  point  itself,  hence  the  latter  ap- 
pears very  thick;  spots  are  often  observed.  This  fibre  is  upholstery 
material  from  Saccharum  officinale Sugar-cane  hairs. 

(b)  The  product  consists  of  short  white 
fibres,  about  8  to  24  fj.  in  width,  and  of  oval, 
flat  fruit-shells,  4  mm.  wide  and  5  mm.  long; 
the  hairs  are  broadened  at  the  base,  hence 
generally  knife-shaped;    thick- walled,  with 
transverse,    fissure-like  marks;     the  upper 
portion  of  the  hair  is  very  thin  and  rough- 
walled;  colorless;  the  ends  are  usually  blunt 
and   contain   a   granular    matter;    slightly 
lignified,  especially  at  the  base. 

Poplar  cotton. 

(c)  The  product  consists  entirely  of  hairs 
and  is  almost  entirely  free  from  accidental 

impurities Vegetable  down  and  silk. 

7.    (a)  The  fibres  have  two  to  five  longi- 
tudinal ridges  on  the  walls,  which  are  either 
crescent- shaped  or  quite  flat,  running  into 
network  at  the  base;  these  ridges  are  broad 
and  difficult  to  discern  in  a  surface  view  of 
the  fibre,  yet  sometimes  very  apparent;  the 
maximum  thickness  about  35  //;   white  or 
yellowish  in  color.     These  fibres  are  the 
seed-hairs  of  Apocyneen  and  Asclepiadeen. 

Vegetable  silk  (see  Fig.  119). 

(b)  The  fibres  are  without  ridges;  trans- 
verse ridges  frequently  at  the  base  or  as  a 
network.  Maximum  thickness  generally 
under  35  ft;  yellowish  to  brown.  These 
fibres  consist  of  the  hairs  which  cover  the  fruit-pods  of  Bombaca. 

Vegetable  down  (see  13). 

8.    (a)  The  hairs  are  3.5  to  4.5  cm.  long,  and  the  largest  are  50  to 
60  //  in  diameter (see  9). 

(b}  The  fibres  are  1.5  to  4  cm.  long,  and  the  largest  are  35  to 
45  fi  in  diameter (see  10). 


FIG.  115.  —  Reed  -  mace 
Hair.  (X34O.)  (Hoh- 
nel.)  A,  portion  of 
hair;  B,  ripe  fruit  at/; 
h,  hair  around  fruit;  z, 
cells ;  k,  knotted  struc- 
ture. 


360 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


9.  (a)  The  fibres  are  narrowed  at  the  base,  and  directly  above 
are  strongly  swollen,  and  up  to  loo/t  in  thickness;  numerous 
pores  at  the  base;  the  fibres  grow  brush-like  on  a  stem,  are  yel- 
lowish and  harsh.  This  is  vegetable  silk  from  Senegal. 

Strophantus  (see  Fig.  117). 


FlG.  1 16—  Cotton  Fibres.  (X340.)  (Hohnel.)  a,  portion  swollen  with  Schweitzer's 
reagent;  cj,  shreds  of  cuticle;  cr,  rings  of  cuticle;  ce,  cellulose;  i,  dried 
protoplasmic  canal;  b,  various  cotton  fibres  with  sections  above;  /,  lumen; 
d,  twists;  s,  granulations  on  cuticle. 

(b)  The  fibres  are  white,  firm,  and  tough,  not  harsh;  form  a 
hairy  tuft  or  crown.     This  is  vegetable  silk  from  India. 

Beaumontia  grandiflora  (see  Fig.  118). 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS   OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        361 

(c)  Yellow  rod  fibres,  weak,  stiff,  straight,  and  harsh. 

Calotropis  procera,  Senegal. 

10.  (a)  At  base  of  the  hair  there  are  spots  or  pores (see  n). 

(b)  Spots  or  pores  lacking.    Vegetable  silk  from  Asclepias 

cornutii,  curassavica*  etc (see  Fig.  119). 

11.  (a)  Spots  large;  round  or  oblique;  the  walls  of  the  fibre  are 
not  thicker  at  the  base  than  at  the  upper  portion;    the  ridges  on 


FIG.  117. — Fibre  of  Strophantus.     (  X3oo.)     a,  longitudinal  view;  b,  cross-section. 
(Micrograph  by  author.) 

the  fibre  are  remarkably  well  developed,  the  hairs  are  strongly 
bent  back  at  the  base.  Vegetable  silk  from  Calotropis  gigantea. 
(b}  Spots  small}  no  longitudinal  markings;  walls  thicker  than 
the  foregoing  fibre;  ridges  less  noticeable  and  often  apparently 
lacking (see  12). 

12.  (a)  Hairs  narrowed  at  the  base Hoya  viridi  flora. 

(b}  Hairs  not  narrowed  at  all,  or  scarcely  so Marsdenia 

13.  (a)  The   hairs  have  mesh-like  ridges  at  the  base    situated 
obliquely,  or  have  spiral  ridges (see  14). 

(b)  Without  mesh-like  ridges  at  the  base (see  15). 

14.  (a)  Base  broader,  thin- walled,  with  oblique,  mesh-like  ridges 
or  spiral  swellings,  which  often  extend  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance.    Points  very  thin-walled,  gradually  tapering,  not  ended 
sharply;    frequently  containing  a   reddish-brown  homogeneous 
granular  substance;   fibre  not  very  stiff,  usually  notched.    Base 

*  This  plant  grows  in  tropical  and  sub-tropical  America  and  is  also  found  in 
India.  Its  seed-hairs  are  said  to  be  stronger  than  those  of  most  other  varieties 
of  such  fibres. 


362 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


contains  no  marrow.     Vegetable  down  from  Eriodendron  anjrac- 
tuosum. 

(b)  Quite  similar,  but  the  ends  are  not  so  tapering;   without 


FIG.  118. — Vegetable  Silk  from  Beaumontia  grandiflora.  (X34°-)  (Hohnel.) 
b,  base  of  fibre;  s,  pointed  ends;  <?,  cross  section;  m,  middle  portion  of 
fibre;  w,  cell-wall;  /,  longitudinal  ridges. 

marrow;    whole  fibre  somewhat  rough- walled.     Vegetable  down 
from  Bombax  heptaphyllum. 

(c}  Very  similar  to  (a),  but  walls  of  fibre  are  quite  roughened 
and  contain  at  intervals  throughout  its  length  a  granular  marrow; 
base  thick-walled,  mesh-like  fibrous  ridges,  but  neither  spirally 
developed  nor  very  broad — at  most  only  one-sixth  of  the  width 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES.        363 

of    the  fibre;    ends,  as   before,  thick- walled.      Vegetable  down, 
Ceiba  cotton,  from  Bombax  ceiba (see  Fig.  1 20). 


FIG.  119 — Vegetable  Silk  from  Asclepias  corntdii.    (  X3oo.)    a,  longitudinal  view; 
b,  cross-sections;  r,  thickened  ridges;  w,  cell-wall.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

15.  (a)  Raw  fibre,  brown,  rough- walled ;    walls  i  to  7  //  thick; 
not  indented;    points  without  marrow;    stiff  and  very  sharp  at 


FIG.  1 20. — Vegetable  Down  (Bambax  ceiba).     (X3oo.)     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

end;  base  not  broadened,  often  contains  granular  matter     Vege- 
table down  from  Ochroma  lagopus (see  Fig  121). 


364 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


(&)  Raw  fibre,   yellowish,    thin-walled,    walls   very   uneven 
in  thickness;    frequently  weakly  developed  longitudinal  ridges; 
just  at  the  base  the  wall  is  very  thick. 
Vegetable    down    from    Cochlospermum 
gossypium. 

II.  GENERAL  TABLE  POR  THE  DETERMI- 
NATION  OF  THE  VEGETABLE  FIBRES. 

Including  cotton,  as  well  as  the  more 
important  fibres  derived  from  bast  or 
sclerenchymous  tissues. 

A.  Fibres  Colored  Blue,  Violet,  or 
Greenish  with  lodin  and  Sulphuric  Acid. 

(a)  BAST  FIBRES  AND  COTTON.  (Cot- 
ton, flax,  hemp,  sunn  hemp,  ramie,  Roa 
fibre.) 

I.  The  cross-sections  become  blue 
or  violet  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid; 
show  no  yellowish  median  layer;  the 
lumen  is  often  filled  with  a  yellowish 
marrow. 

i.  Cross- sections:  they  occur  either 
FIG.  i2i.—Ockroma  lagopus.  singly  or  in  small  groups;  the  single 
(X34o.)  (Hohnel.)  m,  sectjons  <jo  not  join  over  one  another; 

middle  part  of  fibre;  b,  base; 

5,  pointed  end;  /, lumen;  q,    are  polygonal,  and  have  sharp  edges; 

cross-section;  w,  cell-wall.      iodin  and  sulphuric    acid  colors  them 

blue     or     violet;    they    show    closely 

packed,  delicate  layers;  the  lumen  appears  as  a  yellow  point. 
Longitudinal  appearance:  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid, 
quite  blue;  it  appears  transparent,  quite  uniformly  thick;  smooth 
or  delicately  marked;  joints  frequent;  indications  of  dark  lines 
running  through,  which  are  usually  crossed;  enlargements  on 
the  fibre,  especially  at  the  joints,  frequent;  the  lumen  appears 
as  a  narrow  yellow  line;  the  natural  ends  of  the  fibres  are 
sharply  pointed;  length  4  to  66  mm.,  thickness  15  to  37  a. 

Linen  or  Flax. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.         365 

2.  Cross-sections  single  or  very  few  in  a  group,  loosely  held 
together;   polygonal  or  irregular,  mostly  flat,  very  large;   colored 
blue  or  violet  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid;    stratification  not 
noticeable;    the  lumen  is  large  and  irregular;    frequently  filled 
with  a  dark  yellow  marrow;   radial  fissures  frequently  apparent. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  many  of  the  fibres  remarkably 
broad;  the  width  of  a  single  fibre  very  uneven;  smooth  or  striped ; 
very  often  ruptures  in  the  wall;  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid, 
blue  or  violet;  the  lumen  readily  seen;  very  broad,  often  contain- 
ing a  dark  yellow  marrow;  joints  noticeable;  dark,  transverse 
lines  frequent,  often  crossing  each  other;  the  ends  are  relatively 
thick- walled  and  blunt;  length  60  to  250  mm.,  thickness  up  to 
80  fj. China  grass,  Ramie. 

3.  Cross-sections:  not  many  in  the  groups;  polygonal;  mostly 
with   straight  or  slightly  curved  sides  and  blunt  angles;    the 
lumen  is  contracted  lengthwise  regularly;    frequently  contains 
a  yellow  marrow,  many  sections  are  surrounded  by  a  thin,  green- 
ish-colored layer;   not  closely  joined  to  one  another.     The  sec- 
tions often  show  very  beautiful  radial  marks  or  fissures  and  con- 
centric layers;    the  various  layers  are  colored  differently. 

Longitudinal  appearance,  as  with  China  grass;  proportional 
dimensions  similar Roa  fibre. 

4.  Cross-sections  always  isolated,  rounded,   various   shapes, 
mostly  kidney-shaped;    with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid,  blue  or 
violet;    lumen  contracted,  line-shaped,  often  containing  a  yel- 
lowish marrow;  no  stratification. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  fibres  always  separate;  with 
iodin  and  sulphuric  acid,  a  fine  blue;  streaked  and  twisted; 
lumen  broad,  distinct,  frequently  contains  yellowish  marrow;, 
ends  blunt;  the  entire  fibre  not  soluble  in  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid;  coated  with  a  very  thin  cuticle;  length  10  to  60  mm., 
breadth  12  to  42  /x Cotton. 

II.  Cross-section  blue  or  violet  with  iodin  and  sulphuric 
acid;  polyhedral,  rounded  or  irregular;  always  surrounded  by  a 
yellow  median  layer. 

i.  Cross-sections  always  in  groups,  with  angles  more  or  less 
rounded  off,  lying  very  close  to  one  another;  all  of  them  sur- 


366 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


rounded  by  a  thin,  yellowish  median  layer;  the  lumen  is  line- 
shaped,  single  or  forked,  often  broad,  with  inturning  edges,  with- 
out marrow;  good  concentric  stratification;  the  different  strata 
being  differently  colored. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid, 
blue,  greenish,  or  dirty  yellow;  fibres  irregular  in  thickness,  fre- 
quently with  appended  portions  of  yellowish  median  layer;  joints 


FIG.     122. — Hemp.      (X340.)      (Hohnel.)     b,   ends   of   fibres;    c,   cross-section; 
d,  longitudinal  view. 

and  transverse  lines  frequent;  stripes  very  distinct;  the  lumen  is 
not  very  apparent,  but  broader  than  linen;  ends  are  broad,  thick- 
walled,  and  blunt,  often  branched;  length  5  to  55  mm.,  breadth 

16  to  50  fj. Hemp  (see  Fig.  122). 

2.  Cross-sections  in  large  groups,  lying  very  close  together  and 
touching;  very  similar  to  those  of  hemp;  often  crescent-shaped. 
Polygonal  or  oval,  with  lumen  of  varying  size,  frequently  contain- 
ing yellowish  marrow;  lumen  usually  not  line-shaped,  but  irregu- 
lar; a  broad  yellow  median  layer  always  present,  from  which  the 
blue  inner  strata  are  easily  distinguished;  stratification  very  dis- 
tinct, as  with  hemp. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES.         367 

Longitudinal  appearance,  as  with  hemp,  except  in  dimen- 
sions, which  are:  length  4  to  12  mm.,  breadth  25  to  50  //. 

Sunn  hemp. 

(b}  LEAF  FIBRES.     (With  vascular  tissue;    without  jointed 
structure.     Esparto  and  pineapple  fibre.) 


FIG.  123.— Esparto-grass.    (X34O.)    (Hohnel.)    s,  short  sclerenchymous  elements; 
/,  cells;  /,  fibres;    h,  hairs;  e,  epidermal  cells. 

i.  Cross-sections  in  large,  compact,  often  crescent-shaped 
groups;  very  small;  pale  blue  or  violet  with  iodin  and  sulphuric 
acid;  surrounded  by  a  thick,  shell-like  network  of  median  layer; 
rounded  or  polygonal;  lumen  like  a  point  or  streak;  thick  cut- 
tings appear  greenish  or  even  yellow;  frequently  bundles  of 
vascular  tissue  with  one  or  two  rows  of  thick,  yellow-colored  fibres. 
Longitudinal  appearance:  Fibres  slender,  regular,  very 
thick- walled,  smooth;  lumen  often  invisible,  generally  as  a  fine 


368  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

line;  ends  are  tapered  with  needle-like  points;  color  with 
iodin  and  sulphuric  acid,  blue,  often  but  slightly  pronounced; 
frequently  present  short,  thick,  stiff,  completely  lignified 
fibres  from  vascular  tissue;  length  5  mm.,  breadth  6  /*. 

Pineapple  fibre. 

2.  Cross-sections  in  groups;  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid, 
mostly  blue,  though  also  yellow;  often  with  pronounced  stratifi- 
cation; the  outer  strata  frequently  yellow,  while  the  inner  are 
blue;  rounded  or  oval,  seldom  straight-sided ;  lumen  like  a  point. 
Longitudinal  appearance:  the  fibres  are  short;  blue  with 
iodin  and  sulphuric  acid;  thin,  very  firm,  smooth,  uniform  in 
breadth;  lumen  yellow,  line-shaped;  ends  are  seldom  pointed, 
mostly  blunt  or  chiselled  off,  or  forked;  length  1.5  mm.,  breadth 
12  fi Esparto  (see  Fig.  123). 

B.  Fibres  Colored  Yellow  with  Iodin  and  Sulphuric  Acid. 

(a)  DICOTYLEDONOUS  FIBRES.  (Without  vascular  bundles; 
lumen  showing  remarkable  contractions.  Including  jute,  Abel- 
moschus,  Gambo  hemp,  Urena,  and  Manila  hemp;  the  latter 
sometimes  shows  vascular  tissue.) 

I.  Cross-sections  in  groups;  polygonal  and  straight-lined, 
with  sharp  angles;  lumen  round  or  oval,  smooth,  and  without 
marrow;  cross-sections  with  narrow  median  layers  showing  the 
same  color  as  the  inner  strata  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid; 
lengthwise  appearance  shows  the  lumen  with  contractions. 

1.  Cross-sections  polygonal,  straight-lined ;  lumen,  in  general, 
large,  round,  or  oval. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  fibres  smooth,  without  joints  or 
stripes;  lumen  distinctly  visible;  broad;  with  contractions;  the 
ends  always  blunt  and  moderately  thick;  ends  have  wide  lumen; 
length  1.5  to  5  mm.,  breadth  20  to  25  // Jute. 

2.  Cross-sections  in  general  somewhat  smaller  than  jute;  sides 
straight,  with   sharp  angles;    lumen  frequently  like  a  point  or 
line,  oval,  occasionally  pointed;  not  so  large  as  with  jute. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  fibres  quite  even  in  thickness, 
smooth,  with  occasional  joints  or  stripes;  lumen  narrow,  irregu- 
lar in  thickness,  contractions  frequent;  the  ends  are  broad, 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  HBRES.         369 


blunt,  frequently  thickened;    length  i  to  1.6  mm.,  breadth  8  to 

20  /x Pseudo-jute  or  Musk  mallow  of  Abelmoschus. 

II.  Cross-sections  in  groups,  lying  close  together;  polygonal, 
with  sharp  lines  and  sharp  or  rounded  angles;  lumen  without 
marrow;  the  median  layer  is  broad,  and  with  iodin  and  sul- 
phuric acid  is  colored  perceptibly  darker  than  the  inner  layer  of 
cell- wall;  the  lumen  in  places  is 
completely  lacking. 

1.  Cross- sections  more  or  less 
polygonal,  with  sharp  or  slightly 
rounded    angles;     the    lumen    is 
small,     becoming     broader     and 
more  oval  as  the  section  is  more 
rounded;     the    median    layer    is 
broad,  and  is  colored  considerably 
darker    than    the    cell-wall    with 
iodin  and  sulphuric  acid;  stratifi- 
cation occasional  and  indistinct. 

Longitudinal  appearance: 
the  fibres  vary  much  in  thickness; 
lumen  generally  narrow,  with  de- 
cided contractions,  and  in  some 
parts  totally  absent;  the  broader 
fibres  often  striped;  ends  are 
blunt  and  generally  thickened; 
length  2  to  6  mm.,  breadth  14 
to  33  // Gambo  hemp. 

2.  Cross-sections  always  in  groups;    small,   polygonal,   with 
sharp  angles;   lumen  very  small,  appearing  as  a  point  or  a  short 
line. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  occasionally  jointed  or  striped; 
lumen  with  decided  contractions,  in  some  places  altogether  lack- 
ing; ends  blunt  and  sometimes  thickened;  length  i.i  to  3.2 
mm.,  breadth  9  to  24  /*. 

Pseudo-jute  from  Urena  sinuata  (see  Fig.  124). 

(6)  MONOCOTYLEDONOUS    FIBRES.     (Occurring    as    vascular 

bundles  together  with  bast;   the  lumen  exhibits  no  contractions; 


FIG.  124.— Pseudo- jute  (Urene  sinu- 
ata). (X34Q.)  (Hohnel.)  /.longi- 
tudinal view;  v,  interruption  of 
lumen;  e,  end  with  thick  wall;  q, 
cross-section;  m,  median  layer;  Z,,' 
small,  lumen. 


370  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

in  Manila  hemp  vascular  bundles  often  lacking.  Includes  New 
Zealand  flax,  Manila  hemp,  Sansevieria  or  bowstring  hemp,  Pita 
hemp,  and  Yucca  fibre.) 

I.  Cross- sect  ions  generally  rounded,  occasionally  polygonal; 
the  lumen  is  always  rounded,  without  contractions  longitudinally; 
median  layer  indistinct,  or  only  as  a  narrow  line;  vascular  tissue 
small  in  amount,  or  altogether  lacking. 

1.  Cross-sections  small,  generally  rounded,  lying  loosely  sepa- 
rated; very  rounded  angles;  lumen  small,  round,  or  oval,  without 
marrow. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  the  fibres  are  stiff  and  thin; 
the  lumen  is  small  but  very  distinct,  and  uniform  in  width;  the 
ends  are  pointed;  no  markings  and  no  joints;  length  5  to  15  mm., 
breadth  10  to  20/1 New  Zealand  flax. 

2.  Cross-sections  polygonal,  with  rounded  angles,  in  loosely 
adherent  groups;  lumen  large  and  round,  often  containing  yellow 
marrow. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  fibres  uniform  in  diameter; 
walls  thinner  than  those  of  New  Zealand  flax;  lumen  large  and 
distinct;  ends  pointed  or  slightly  rounded;  silicious  stegmata 
adhering  to  the  fibre-bundles  and  to  be  found  in  the  ash  as  bead 
like  strings,  insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid;  length  3  to  12  mm., 
diameter  16  to  32  // Manila  hemp. 

II.  Cross-sections   polygonal;    lumen    large    and    polygonal, 
with  angles  quite  sharp ;  median  layer  lacking  or  only  in  the  form 
of  a  thin  line. 

1.  Cross-sections  distinctly  polygonal,  often  with  blunt  angles, 
lying  compactly  together;  lumen  large  and  polygonal,  with  sharp 
angles;   no  stratification  in  cell- wall. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  fibres  thin  and  smooth;  lumen 
large  and  distinct;  ends  pointed;  length  1.5  to  6  mm.,  diameter 
.  15  to  26  /£ Sansevieria  fibre. 

2.  Cross-sections  polygonal,  not  many  sections  to  a  group,  but 
lying  compactly  together;    angles  slightly  rounded;    lumen  not 
very  large,  polygonal,  often  having   blunt   angles;    besides  the 
bast-fibre  sections  are  to  be  noticed  some  vascular  bundles  in  the 
form  of  large  spirals. 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.         371 

Longitudinal  appearance:  fibres  uniform  in  diameter; 
lumen  not  very  large,  but  uniform;  no  structure;  ends  pointed 
and  sometimes  blunt;  length  1.3  to  3.7  mm.,  diameter  15  to  24  /*. 

Aloe  hemp. 

3.  Cross-sections  polygonal,  with  straight  lines;  angles  sharp, 
though  sometimes  blunt;  sections  lie  compactly  together;  lumen 
large  and  polygonal,  though  angles  not  so  sharp. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  fibres  stiff,  and  often  very  wide 
towards  the  middle;  lumen  large;  ends  broad,  thickened,  and 
often  forked;  large,  shining  crystals  to  be  found  in  the  ash,  which 


FIG.    125. — Yucca   Fibre.      (X4OO.)      A,    longitudinal   view;     B,    cross-section; 
m,  median  layer;   t,  transverse    markings.     (Micrograph  by  author.) 

are  derived  from  the  chisel-shaped  crystals  of  'calcium  oxalate 
clinging  to  the  outside  of  the  fibre;  these  crystals  are  often  £  mm. 
in  length;  length  of  fibre  i  to  4  mm.,  diameter  20  to  32  //. 

Pita  hemp. 

III.  Cross-sections  polygonal  and  small,  sides  straight,  with 
very  sharp  angles;  lumen  small,  usually  as  a  point  or  line-shaped; 
sections  lie  compactly  together  and  are  surrounded  by  a  thick, 
distinct  median  layer. 

i.  Cross- sections  as  above. 

Longitudinal  appearance:  fibres  very  narrow;  lumen  also 
very  narrow;  longitudinal  ridges  frequent;  ends  usually  sharp- 
pointed;  length  0.5  to  6  mm.,  diameter  10  to  29  /*. 

Yucca  fibre  (see  Fig.  125). 


372  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


C.  Analytical  Review  of  the  Chief  Vegetable  Fibres. 

1.  Those  occurring  as  thick,  fibrous  bundles,  also  with  vascu- 
lar tissue  (monocotyledonous  fibres) (see  2). 

Vascular  tissue  absent;  sections  and  fibres  always  single; 
round  or  kidney-shaped  by  being  pressed  together;  fibres  with  a 
thin  external  cuticle  insoluble  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and 
not  swelling  (vegetable  hairs) (see  7). 

Vascular  tissue  absent;  the  fibres  arc  bundles  of  bast  fila- 
ments; sections  occurring  two  or  more  together  (mostly  true 
dicotyledonous  fibres) (see  13). 

2.  Lumen  very  narrow,  line-shaped,  much  thinner  than  the 
wall (see  3). 

Lumen  in  thickest  fibres  almost  as  wide,  or  even  wider, 
than  the  wall;  completely  lignified (see  4). 

3.  Sections  polygonal,  sides  straight,  with  sharp  angles;  com- 
pletely lignified;   diameter  10 to  20 ft.. Yucca  fibre  (see  Fig.  125). 

Sections  rounded  to  polygonal;  often  flattened  or  egg- 
shaped;  the  inner  strata  at  least  not  lignified;  diameter  4  to  8  fi. 

Pineapple  fibre. 

4.  Thick,  strongly  silicified  stegmata  occurring  at  intervals  on 
the  fibre-bundles  in  short  to  long  rows,  sometimes  but  few;  these 
are  four-cornered,  have  serrated  edges,  and  show  a  round,  bright, 
transparent  place  in  the  middle;    they  are  easily  seen  after  the 
fibre  has  been  macerated  with  chromic  acid,  and  are  about  30  ft 
in  length ;  in  the  ash  of  fibres  previously  treated  with  nitric  acid, 
they  appear  in  the  form  of  pearly  strings,  often  quite  long,  and 
insoluble  in  hydrochloric  acid;   they  are  joined  together  length- 
wise;   the  fibres  are  thick- walled,  with  fissure-like  pores;    3  to 
12  mm.  long;  the  fibre-bundles  are  yellowish  and  lustrous. 

Manila  hemp. 

Stegmata  present,  sometimes  in  small,  sometimes  in  large 
quantities;  they  are  lens-shaped,  small  (about  15  /*  wide),  and  are 
fastened  to  the  exterior  fibres  of  the  bundles  by  serrated  edges; 
in  the  ash  of  the  fibre  they  melt  together  in  the  form  of  indistinct 
globules;  in  the  ash  of  fibres  previously  boiled  in  nitric  acid  they 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        373 

appear  as  yeast-cells,  joined  together  in  round  skeletons  of  silica; 
the  fibres  are  often  thin- walled,  with  numerous  pores;   i  to  2  mm. 

in  length ;   the  raw  fibres  generally  brown  and  rough Coir. 

Stegmata  absent,  hence  the  fibres  are  not  accompanied  by 
silicified  elements (see  5). 

5.  Fibre-bundles  covered  externally  at  intervals  with  crystals 
of  calcium  oxalate,  at  times  up  to  0.5  mm.  in  length;   lustrous, 
with  quadrangular  sections,  chisel-shaped  at  the  ends,  hence  they 
appear  as  thick,  needle-shaped  crystals;  when  present  in  large 
numbers  these  crystals  occur  in  long  rows  which  are  frequently 
visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  always  easily  recognizable  under  the 
microscope,  especially  in  the  ash.     The  fibre-bundles  are  mostly 
thick,  and  their  outer  fibres  (as  a  result  of  their  preparation) 
frequently  contain  fissures  or  are  torn;   thickness  of  the  walls 
very  uneven;  fibres  often  much  widened  at  the  middle. 

Pita  hemp. 

Without  crystals,  generally  thin;  in  cross-section  usually 
less  than  100  fibres  to  a  bundle;  thickness  of  walls  and  lumen 
very  uniform (see  6). 

6.  Sections  mostly  round,  not  very  compact;  lumen  usually 
thinner  than  the  wall,  but  never  a  single  line;  in  section  round 
or  oval;  vascular  tissue  in  but  small  amount. 

New  Zealand  flax. 

Sections,  on  one  side  at  least,  polygonal;  section  of 
lumen  polygonal,  with  angles  more  or  less  sharp;  generally  as 
wide  or  wider  than  the  wall;  vascular  tissue  frequent. 

Aloe  hemp. 

7.  Fibres  mostly  rope-shaped,   twisted,   externally  streaked, 
generally  possessing  fine  granules  or  marked  with  little  lines, 
therefore  rough;    thin  to   thick  walls;    cross-sections  squeezed 
together,  or  round  to  kidney-shaped,  hence  the  fibre  has  more  or 
less  the  shape  of  a  flat  band;   section  of  lumen  more  or  less 
arched,  line-shaped,  frequently  containing  yellow  marrow;  con- 
sists of  pure  cellulose  with  the  exception  of  the  thin  cuticle. 

Cotton. 

Fibres  not  twisted,  smooth  externally,  and  without  longi- 
tudinal markings;  fibres  not  flat,  sections  round;  walls  generally 


374 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


very  thin;  sometimes,  however,  they  are  thick;  lignified,  scarcely 
swelling  in  ammoniacal  copper  oxide. . .  Vegetable  down  } 

Vegetable  silks  j    (See  *}' 

8.  Fibres  on  the  inside  possess  from  2  to  5  broad  ridges,  which 
at  times  are  very  noticeable,  at  others  scarcely  visible;    they  run 
lengthwise  in  the  fibre,  and  in  section  are  semicircular;   on  this 
account  the  walls  appear  unequal  in  thickness   when  viewed 

ongitudinally;  the  maximum  thickness  is  about  35  //. 

Vegetable  silks  (see  9). 

Fibres  without  ridges;    maximum  thickness  mostly  30  to 
2$  p Vegetable  down  (see  12). 

9.  Largest  diameters  50  to  60  /*;  length  3.5  to  4.5  cm. .  (see  10). 
Largest  diameters  35  to  45  //;  length  1.5  to  4  cm.. (see  n). 

10.  Fibres  contracted  at  the  lower  end,  and  directly  above 
abruptly  swelling,  becoming  80  ft  thick;  the  under  portion  of  the 
swollen  area  contains  numerous  pore-canals,*  fibres  feather -like 
or  brush-like,  arising  from  a  straight  shaft. 

Vegetable  silk  from  Sengal. 

Contrary  to  the  above  the  fibres  originate  from  one  point, 
like  a  fan;   remarkably  strong,  curved  backwards;   very  firm. 

Vegetable  silk  from  India. 

Like  the  foregoing,  but  the  fibre  is  stiff,  straight,  weak, 
and  brittle Calotropis  procera. 

11.  Thickened  ridges  very  noticeable;    in  the  cross-sectic ns 
often  occurring  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle;   bound  together  in  a 
strictly  reticulated  manner. 

Vegetable  silk  from  Asclepias  cornutii. 

Thickened    ridges   indistinct,    projecting    but    slightly   in 

the  cross-section Vegetable  silk  from  Asclepias  curassavica. 

12.  Raw  fibre,  yellowish;  broadened  at  the  lower  end  (up  to 
50  /i);  also  reticular  thickening  or  transverse  markings;  wall  i  to 
2  fi  thick Bombax  cotton. 

Raw  fibre,  brown;  the  lower  end  contracted  and  not 
showing  reticulated  thickenings;  fibre  almost  altogether  thin- 
walled,  though  just  at  the  lower  end  very  thick- walled. 

Cochlospermum  gossypium. 

13.  Thick  fibre-bundles,  whose  outer  surface  contains  at  inter- 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        375 

vals  series  of  thick  silicious  plates,  having  sharp  indented  edges 
and  a  round,  hollow  space Manila  hemp  (see  under  4). 

Silicious  plates  absent;  lengthwise  the  lumen  often  exhibits 
remarkable  contractions,  while  the  wall  is  very  uneven  in  thick- 
ness; at  intervals,  indeed  the  lumen  is  almost  entirely  inter- 
rupted; joints  and  transverse  fissures  along  the  fibre;  transverse 
markings  and  lines,  which  appear  somewhat  like  zones  or  knots, 
are  completely  lacking,  or  are  very  rare  and  indistinct;  com- 
pletely lignified,  hence  colored  yellow  with  iodin  and  sulphuric 
acid (see  14). 

Silicious  plates  absent,  also  remarkable  contractions  of 
the  lumen;  thickness  of  the  walls  very  uniform;  joints  and  fissures 
along  the  fibre,  transverse  lines  and  markings  frequent,  hence 
the  fibre  often  appears  as  if  it  contains  swollen  knots;  unligni- 
fied,  or  only  lignified  on  the  external  layer  of  membrane,  hence 
lengthwise  the  fibre  is  colored  blue  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid 
or  violet  or  green,  or  at  the  most  colored  yellow  in  places . .  (see  17). 

14.  Exterior  layers  of  membrane  narrow  and  showing  the 
same  coloration  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  as  the  inner  layers, 
hence  the  same  as  the  entire  cross-section;  the  lumen  hardly 
ever  completely  interrupted (see  15). 

Median  layer  in  sections  wide;  colored  considerably 
darker  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid;  lumen  often  completely 
interrupted (see  16). 

15.  Lumen  in  general  large,   diameter  as  wide  or  only  a  little 
narrower  than  the  wall;   in  section  round  or  oval,  seldom  as  a 
point;   no  crystals  of  calcium  oxalate True  jute. 

Lumen  usually  small,  diameter  much  narrower  than  the 
thick  wall  in  section  frequently  as  a  point;  crystals  of  calcium 
oxalate  of  frequent  occurrence  (detected  by  ignition). 

Pseudo-jute  (Abelmoschus]  (see  Fig.  126). 

16.  Lumen    almost   always   considerably    smaller  than   the 
wall;   ends  usually  very  thick- walled  and  narrow;  calcium  oxa- 
late crystals  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Pseudo-jute  (Urena  sinuata). 

Lumen  frequently  as  wide  as  or  wider  than  the  wall,  mostly 
narrower  however;  ends  broad  and  blunt... Gambo 


376 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


17.  The  lumen  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  fibre  generally 
line-shaped,  much  narrower  than  the  wall;  ends  never  blunt, 
always  sharply  pointed;  sections  isolated  or  in  small  groups, 
regular  in  diameter,  sharp-angled  and  straight-sided  polygonals; 
without  separate  median  layer;  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid  colors 
the  entire  section  blue  or  violet;  the  lumen  in  the  cross-section  is 


FIG.  126.— Abelmoschus  Jute.     (X325.)     (Hohnel.)    /,  longitudinal  view;  q,  cross- 
section,   e,  ends;    L,  small  lumen;    v,  narrowing  of  lumen;  m,  median  layer 

very  small,  or  as  a  point,  containing  a  marrow  which  is  colored 

yellow  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid Linen  or  Flax. 

Lumen,  at  least  in  the  central  portion  of  the  fibre,  always 
much  thicker  than  the  walls;  in  section  generally  more  or  less 
flattened,  narrow  to  broad,  egg-shaped  or  oval.  Fibre  ends 
blunt,  never  sharply  pointed;  sections  almost  never  sharp-angled 
polygonals,  but  more  or  less  oval  or  elliptical,  and  with  a  rounded 
boundary (see  lg^ 


QUALITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.         377 

18.  B read th  of  fibre  up  to  80  /*;  maximum  length  15  to  60  mm. ; 
sections  always  in  compact  groups,  which  often  consist  of  many 
fibres,  with  thinner  or  thicker  layers  of  membrane,  which  are  col- 
ored yellow  with  iodin  and  sulphuric  acid,  hence  the  fibre  is 
never  colored  a  pure  blue,  but  dirty  blue  to  greenish,  and  in  places 
yellow;   ends  often  have  side  branches  projecting (see  19). 

19.  Lignified  exterior  membranes  very  thin;    lumen  in  sec- 
tion narrow,  very  seldom  broad,  fissure-like  or  line-shaped,  often 
branched,  without  marrow Hemp. 

Lignified  exterior  layers  often  as  wide  as  the  interior  layers, 
or  wider;  the  interior  layers  are  often  loosened  in  places  from  the 
exterior  ones  where  they  are  thin;  lumen  in  section  scarcely  ever 
narrow  or  fissure-shaped,  but  broad,  oval,  or  long;  often  contain- 
ing a  yellowish  marrow Sunn 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

i.  Wool  and  Cotton  Fabrics. — The  finishing  materials  and 
coloring-matters  should  be  removed  as  far  as  possible  by  boiling 
the  sample  to  be  examined  first  in  a  i  per  cent,  solution  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  then  in  a  dilute  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  (about  a 
one-twentieth  per  cent,  solution),  and  finally  in  water.  A  por- 
tion of  the  material  is  then  dried  at  100°  C.  for  an  hour  (or  until 
constant  weight  is  obtained)  and  weighed;  this  weight  will  repre- 
sent the  actual  amount  of  true  fibre  present  in  the  sample,  and 
the  loss  will  correspond  to  moisture.  Then  steep  for  twelve  hours 
in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  and  mix 
with  three  volumes  of  alcohol  and  water;  filter  off  the  dissolved 
cotton  and  wash  the  residue  of  wool  well  with  alcohol.  Dry  at 
100° C.,  and  weigh;  this  will  give  the  amount  of  wool  present.* 
The  following  example  will  illustrate  this  method: 

Grams. 

Sample  weighed 3 . 62 

After  treatment  with  acid  and  alkali 3.17 

Finishing  materials,  etc o .  45 

After  drying  at  100°  C 2.77 

Loss  as  water 0 . 40 

Wool  left  after  treating  with  acid i .  96 

Cotton,  by  difference ogx 

Hence  the  composition  of  this  sample  would  be  as  follows: 

Per  Cent. 

Finishing  materials 12 . 43 

Moisture n  .05 

WoQl 54- 14 

Cotton 


*  By  this  treatment  the  wool  suffers  a  loss  of  about  2  J  per  cent. 

378 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        379 

Another,  and  perhaps  a  better,  method  for  determining  the 
relative  amounts  of  wool  and  cotton  in  a  mixed  fabric  or  yarn, 
especially  when  the  cotton  is  present  in  rather  large  proportion, 
is  to  remove  the  wool  by  treatment  with  a  dilute  boiling  solution 
of  caustic  potash.  The  estimation  is  carried  out  in  the  following 
manner: 

The  sample  to  be  tested  is  treated  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
sodium  carbonate  solutions  as  before,  in  order  to  remove  finish- 
ing materials,  and. after  thorough  washing  is  dried  at  100°  C.  and 
weighed.  This  gives  the  weight  of  the  dry  fibres.  The  weighed 
sample  is  then  boiled  for  twenty  minutes  in  a  5  per  cent,  solution 
of  caustic  potash.*  The  residue  is  well  washed  in  fresh  water, 
and  redried  at  100°  C.  and  weighed.  The  residue  consists  of 
cotton,  the  wool  having  been  dissolved  by  the  caustic  potash. f 
If  the  residue  becomes  disintegrated  and  cannot  be  washed  and 
dried  as  one  piece,  it  should  be  collected  on  a  tared  filter  (one 
which  has  been  dried  at  100°  C.  and  weighed)  and  well  washed 
with  water,  then  dried  at  100°  C.  and  weighed.  The  tared  weight 
of  the  filter  subtracted  from  the  latter  will  give  the  weight  of  the 
cotton  particles. 

Examples: 

(a)  Analysis  of  a  cloth  sample: 

Grams. 

Weight  of  sample 5 . 42 

After  treatment  with  acid  and  alkali 5  • IO 

Finishing  materials,  etc 0.32 

After  drying  at  100°  C 4.26 

Loss  as  water o .  84 

Cotton  left  after  boiling  with  caustic  alkali 2.82 

Wool,  by  difference i .  44 

*  It  is  not  advisable  to  use  caustic  soda  instead  of  caustic  potash,  as  the  results 
obtained  are  not  as  satisfactory. 

f  In  case  yarns  are  to  be  analyzed,  the  preliminary  treatment  should  consist 
of  a  thorough  scouring  with  soap.  After  drying  in  the  air,  the  loss  in  weight 
should  be  recorded  as  grease  and  miscellaneous  dirt.  On  then  drying  at  100°  C. 
to  constant  weight,  the  loss  will  represent  moisture,  and  the  residue  dry  fibre. 
This  is  then  analyzed  as  in  the  manner  above  described. 


380  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Hence  the  composition  of  this  sample  would  be: 

Per  Cent. 

Finishing  materials 5  . 98 

Moisture 15  . 50 

Cotton 52-°3 

Wool 26.49 


Since  the  cotton  itself  suffers  a  slight  loss  on  boiling  with 
caustic  potash,  it  is  customary,  as  a  correction,  to  add  to  the  cotton 
found  5  per  cent,  of  its  weight,*  and  to  subtract  a  corresponding 
amount  from  that  of  the  wool.  On  applying  this  correction  the 
result  of  the  above  analysis  would  become: 

Per  Cent. 

Finishing  materials 5  . 98 

Moisture 15 . 50 

Cotton 54-63 

Wool 23.89 


Figured  on  the  weight  of  the  dry  fibre,  the  relative  amounts  of 
the  two  fibres  in  the  above  samples  would  be: 

Per  Cent. 

Cotton -.      69.5 

Wool 30.5 


Since,  however,  in  making  mixes,  the  dry  weights  of  the  fibres 
are  not  taken,  we  may  assume  the  weight  to  include  the  normal 
amount  of  moisture  held  by  each  fibre.  As  the  normal  amount 
of  moisture  for  cotton  is  about  8  per  cent.,  and  for  wool  about 
16  per  cent.,  we  may  approximate  very  closely  to  the  true  compo- 
sition of  this  sample  by  adding  to  the  dry  weights  of  the  fibres  their 
respective  amounts  of  moisture;  the  relative  amounts  of  cotton 
and  wool  then  become : 

Grams. 

Weight  of  cotton  found 2 . 82 

Add  5  per  cent,  correction 0.14 

2.96 

*  The  author  has  found  that  the  cotton  will  not  lose,  as  a  rule,  more  than  3 
per  cent. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS   OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        38.1 
This  represents  92  per  cent,  of  air-dry  cotton. 

Grams. 
Hence  air-dry  cotton  would  be 3.22 

Weight  of  wool  found i .  44 

Subtract  correction  for  cotton 0.14 

1.30 

This  represents  84  per  cent,  of  air-dry  wool. 

Hence  air-dry  wool  would  be 1.54 

Therefore  the  relative  amounts  of  cotton  and  wool  on  this 
basis  would  be: 

Per  Cent. 

Cotton 67 . 6 

Wool 32.4 

(6)  Analysis  of  a  yarn: 

Grams. 

Weight  of  sample 5 . 65 

Scoured  in  soap,  washed,  and  air-dried 4.97 

Grease,  etc o .  68 

Dried  at  100°  C 4.32 

Loss  as  moisture o .  65 

Weight  of  filter-paper  dried  at  100°  C i .  16 

Weight  of  filter  and  residue  of  cotton  dried  at  100°  C. . . .     3 . 66 


Weight  of  dry  cotton 

Add  5  per  cent,  correction 

Correct  for  moisture  at  8  per  cent 

Weight  of  dry  wool  by  difference  (with  correction) .... 
Correct  for  moisture  at  16  per  cent 


Hence  the  composition  of  this  yarn  may  be  expressed  as: 

Per  Cent. 

Grease,  etc 12 .  oo 

Moisture n-5° 

Cotton 44-2S 

Wool 32.25 


And  the  relative  proportion  of  the  two  fibres  would  be  as 
follows : 


382  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Dry  at  100°  C.  Air-dry. 

Cotton 60.7  58.5 

Wool 39.3  41.5 


The  following  scheme  for  the  analysis  of  a  fabric  contain- 
ing wool  and  cotton  is  given  by  Herzfeld :  * 

(a)  Estimation  of  moisture. — Five  grams  of  the  fabric  are 
dried  at  100°  C.  until  the  weight  is  constant.     The  loss  indicates 
the  amount  of  moisture  present. 

(b)  Estimation  of  cotton. — Five  grams  of  the  fabric  are  boiled 
for  \  hour  with  100  cc.  of  a  o.i  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  soda, 
then  washed   with  water   and    treated   with  lukewarm  10  per 
cent,  caustic  potash  solution,  until  the  wool  fibres  are  completely 
dissolved,  if  necessary  the  liquid  being  raised  to  the  boil.     The 
residue  is  washed  with  water,  then  treated  for  £  hour  with  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid,f  then  washed  again  with  water,  boiled  for 
\  hour  with  distilled  water,  wrashed  with  alcohol  and  ether,  and 
finally  dried  at  100°  C.  until  constant  weight  is  obtained.     The 
residue  is  cotton. 

(c)  Estimation  of  wool. — Five  grams  of  the  cloth  are  boiled 
with  100  cc.  of  a  dilute  solution  of  soda-ash  for  \  hour,  washed 
with  water,  and  steeped  for  2  hours  in  sulphuric  acid  of  58°  Bs.,t 
then  washed  with   water,  and  boiled  for  \  hour  with   water, 
and  finally  washed  with  alcohol  and  ether,  and  dried  at  100°  C., 
until  constant  weight  is  obtained.     The  residue  is  wool. 

(d)  Dressing  and  dye  are  found  by  difference. 

When  a  rough,  approximate  analysis  of  a  wool-cotton  is 
desired,  it  will  be  sufficient  only  to  weigh  the  sample,  boil  for 
fifteen  minutes  in  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  potash,  wash 
well  in  acidulated  water,  then  in  fresh  water,  and  dry  in  the  air. 
On  reweighing,  the  amount  of  cotton  will  be  ascertained,  while 

*  Yarns  and  Textile  Fabrics,  p.  145.         i 

fThe  object  of  washing  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  is  to  neutralize  the 
excess  of  caustic  alkali  in  the  fibre,  so  that  it  may  be  more  readily  removed,  as 
caustic  alkali  remains  in  the  fibre  very  pertinaciously. 

$  Acid  of  this  strength  is  somewhat  too  strong,  as  it  will  decompose  the  wool 
to  a  considerable  extent.  It  is  not  safe  to  employ  sulphuric  acid  of  greater 
strength  than  one  part  of  acid  to  one  part  of  water  by  volume. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        383 

the  loss  in  weight  will  represent  the  amount  of  wool.  Results 
attained  by  this  process  are  usually  sufficiently  accurate  to  give 
one  a  practical  idea  of  the  approximate  relative  amounts  of  wool 
and  cotton  present  in  a  sample  of  mixed  goods. 

Another  method  for  the  separation  of  wool  from  cotton  in 
their  quantitative  estimation  is  treatment  of  the  mixed  fibres 
with  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  copper  oxide,  whereby  the  cotton 
is  dissolved ;  and  after  washing  and  drying,  the  residue  of  wool  is 
weighed.  This  method,  however,  is  not  very  satisfactory,  as  it 
is  difficult,  in  the  first  place,  to  obtain  a  complete  and  thorough 
solution  of  the  cotton;  and  in  the  second  place,  the  wool  will  be 
considerably  affected  by  this  treatment  and  more  or  less  decom- 
posed. Consequently  the  results  obtained  by  this  method  are 
not  very  accurate,  and  it  cannot  be  recommended. 

2.  Wool  and  Silk. — Silk  is  soluble  in  strong  hydrochloric 
acid,  whereas  wool  is  not  soluble  in  this  reagent  to  any  extent. 
Hence  this  method  may  be  utilized  for  the  quantitative  estima- 
tion of  the  two  fibres  when  occurring  together.  The  sample  is 
first  treated  with  acid  and  alkali  in  the  manner  already  described 
in  order  to  remove  foreign  materials  other  than  actual  fibre.  It 
is  then  dried  and  weighed;  then  immersed  in  cold  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid  (about  40  per  cent,  strength).  The  silk 
dissolves  almost  immediately.  The  residue  is  collected,  washed 
thoroughly,  dried  again,  and  weighed.  The  loss  in  weight  repre- 
sents silk,  while  the  weight  of  the  residue  represents  wooL 
Another  method,  and  one  which  is  very  satisfactory,  is  to  dissolve 
the  silk  by  treatment  with  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  nickel  oxide, 
in  which  reagent  the  silk  is  very  readily  soluble  even  in  the  cold. 
It  only  requires  a  treatment  of  about  two  minutes  to  completely 
dissolve  the  silk  in  most  silk  fabrics  other  than  plush.  Richard- 
son *  found  that  by  this  treatment  cotton  lost  only  0.45  per  cent, 
in  weight  and  wool  only  0.33  per  cent.  As  silk  in  plush  goods 
and  similar  fabrics  is  much  more  difficult  to  dissolve,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  boil  such  material  with  the  nickel  solution  for  ten 
minutes  under  a  reflux  condenser.  By  this  treatment  cotton  will 

*  Jour.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  vol.  12,  p.  430. 


384  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

lose  only  0.8  per  cent,  in  weight.  The  nickel  solution  is  best 
prepared  by  dissolving  25  gms.  of  crystallized  nickel  sulphate 
in  80  cc.  of  water;  add  36  cc.  of  a  20  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  carefully  neutralizing  any  excess  of  alkali  with  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid.  The  precipitate  of  nickel  hydroxide  is  then  dis- 
solved in  125  cc.  of  strong  ammonia,  and  the  solution  diluted 
to  250  cc.  with  water.  Instead  of  the  above  reagent,  a  boiling 
solution  of  basic  zinc  chloride  may  be  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  dissolving  the  silk.  This  latter  solution  is  obtained  by  heating 
together  1000  parts  of  zinc  chloride,  850  parts  of  water,  and  40 
parts  of  zinc  oxide  until  complete  solution  is  effected.  Rich- 
ardson recommends  that  the  sample  to  be  examined  should  be 
plunged  two  or  three  times  into  the  boiling  solution  of  zinc  chloride, 
care  being  taken  that  the  total  time  of  immersion  does  not  exceed 
one  minute.  The  zinc  chloride  solution  should  be  sufficiently 
basic  and  concentrated  in  order  to  obtain  good  results.  Under 
the  best  conditions,  cotton  loses  about  0.5  per  cent,  in  weight,  and 
wool  from  1.5  to  2.0  per  cent.* 

3.  Silk  and  Cotton. — The  methods  given  above  for  separating 
silk  from  wool  may  also  be  used  for  the  separation  and  quantita- 
tive determination  of  silk  in  fabrics  containing  this  fibre  in  con- 
junction with  cotton. 

Another  method  for  separating  silk  from  cotton  is  by  the  use 
of  an  alkaline  solution  of  copper  and  glycerol,  which  serves  as  an 
excellent  solvent  for  the  silk.  The  reagent  is  prepared  as  follows : 
Dissolve  1 6  gms.  of  copper  sulphate  in  150  cc.  of  water,  with 
the  addition  of  10  gms.  of  glycerol;  then  gradually  add  a  solution 
of  caustic  soda  until  the  precipitate  of  copper  hydrate  which  is 
at  first  formed  just  redissolves.  This  solution  readily  dissolves 
silk,  but  is  said  not  to  affect  either  wool  or  the  vegetable  fibres. 
Richardson,  however,  has  found  that  cotton  heated  with  this 
solution  for  twenty  minutes  (the  time  necessary  to  dissolve  silk  in 
plush)  lost  from  i  to  1.5  per  cent,  in  weight  and  became  friable 

*  The  chief  difficulty  attached  to  the  use  of  the  zinc  chloride  solution  is  that 
it  requires  a  long  and  tedious  washing  to  remove  all  of  the  zinc  salt  from  the  resid- 
ual fibres.  It  is  best  to  wash  with  water  acidulated  with  hydrochloric  or  acetic 
acid. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        385 

and  dusty  on  drying;  while  woolen  fabrics  lost  from  9  to  16  per 
cent,  in  weight.  Hence  the  reagent  would  be  useless  in  the  analy- 
sis of  fabrics  containing  wool. 

4.  Wool,  Cotton,  and  Silk. — Samples  of  shoddy  frequently 
contain  all  three  of  these  fibres  present  in  greater  or  lesser 
amount,  and  often  it  is  desirable  to  know  at  least  the  approx- 
imate amounts  of  each  fibre  in  the  mixture.  A  method  of  pro- 
cedure recommended  is  the  following:  A  weighed  sample  of  the 
material  is  boiled  for  thirty  minutes  in  a  i  per  cent,  solution  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  washed,  and  then  boiled  for  thirty  minutes  in  a 
.0.05  per  cent,  solution  of  soda-ash.  This  preliminary  operation  is 
similar  to  that  above  described  in  the  preceding  analyses,  and  is 
for  the  purpose  of  freeing  the  fibres  as  far  as  possible  from  extra- 
neous foreign  matter.  After  thorough  washing  and  air-drying, 
the  weight  of  the  sample  is  again  taken,  and  the  loss  will  represent 
miscellaneous  foreign  matter.  The  sample  is  then  dried  at  100°  C. 
to  constant  weight;  the  loss  in  weight  will  represent  moisture. 
The  sample  is  then  divided  into  two  weighed  portions;  the  first 
is  treated  for  five  minutes  with  a  boiling  solution  of  basic  zinc 
chloride  prepared  as  above  described,  washed  thoroughly  with 
acidulated  water,  then  with  fresh  water,  and  dried  at  100°  C. 
again.  The  loss  in  weight  will  represent  the  amount  of  silk 
present.  The  second  portion  of  the  sample  is  boiled  for  ten  min- 
utes in  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  potash;  washed  thor- 
oughly, dried  at  100°  C.  and  weighed.  This  weight,  with  a  cor- 
rection of  5  per  cent,  added  to  it,  will  represent  the  amount  of 
cotton  present.  The  amount  of  wool  is  obtained  by  taking  the 
difference  between  the  total  weight  of  the  combined  fibres  and 
the  sum  of  the  weights  of  the  silk  and  cotton. 

Example: 

Grams. 

Sample  of  loose  shoddy  weighed 5 . 06 

Treated  with  acid  and  alkali,  and  air-dried 4.23 

Loss  as  foreign  matter o .  83 

Dried  at  100°  C 3-°2 

Loss  as  moisture 0.61 


3 86  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Divided  into  two  portions: 

Grams. 

(a)  weighed i -95 

(6)  weighed 1-67 

(a)  treated  with  zinc  chloride i .  73 

Loss  as  silk 0.22 

(6)  treated  with  caustic  potash,  residue  as  cotton 0.34 

Loss  as  wool i .  33 

Hence  the  composition  of   this  sample  on  the  basis  of  dry 
fibre  would  be: 

Per  Cent. 

Silk 11.3 

Cotton 21.5 

Wool 67.  2 


Von  Remont  gives  the  following  method  for  analyzing  fabrics 
containing  a  mixture  of  silk,  wool,  and  cotton.  Four  quantities 
(A,B,C,D)  of  2  gms.  each  of  the  air-dried  material  are  weighed 
out.  Portion  A  is  kept  aside,  and  each  of  the  other  three  is 
boiled  for  fifteen  minutes  in  200  cc.  of  water  containing  3  per 
cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  liquid  is  decanted,  and  the 
boiling  repeated  with  more  dilute  acid.  This  treatment  removes 
the  size  and  the  major  portion  of  the  coloring-matter.  Cotton  is 
nearly  always  decolorized  quite  rapidly,  wool  not  so  readily,  and 
silk  but  imperfectly,  especially  with  black-dyed  fabrics.  The 
samples  should  be  well  washed  and  squeezed  in  order  to  remove 
the  acid  liquor.  Portion  B  is  set  aside.  Portions  C  and  D  are 
then  placed  for  two  minutes  in  a  boiling  solution  of  basic  zinc 
chloride  (of  1.72  sp.gr.,  and  prepared  as  above  described),  which 
dissolves  any  silk  present.  They  are  then  washed  with  water 
containing  i  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and  again  with  pure 
water,  until  the  washings  no  longer  show  the  presence  of  zinc. 
Portion  C  is  squeezed  and  set  aside.  Portion  D  is  boiled  gently 
for  fifteen  minutes  with  60  to  80  cc.  of  caustic  soda  solution  (1.02 
sp.  gr.)  in  order  to  remove  any  wool.  The  sample  is  then  care- 
fully washed  with  water.  The  four  portions  are  next  dried  for 
an  hour  at  100°  C.,  and  then  left  exposed  to  the  air  for  ten  hours 
in  order  to  allow  them  to  absorb  the  normal  amount  of  hygro- 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES.        387 

scopic  moisture.     The  four  samples  are  then  weighed,  and  call- 
ing a,  b,  c,  and  d  their  respective  weights,  we  shall  have 

a  —  b  =  dye  and  finishing  material; 
b-c  =  si\k; 
c— rf— wool; 

d=  cotton  (or  vegetable  fibre). 

This  method  is  open  to  objections,  as  the  plan  of  using  air- 
dried  material,  then  drying  at  100°  C.,  and  subsequently  expos- 
ing to  the  air  again  before  reweighing,  is  liable  to  give  very  errone- 
ous results.  Richardson  recommends  that  the  samples  should 
be  thoroughly  dried  at  ioo°C.  before  being  weighed  out,  and 
the  treated  portions  should  subsequently  be  dried  at  the  same 
temperature  before  weighing.  In  order  to  prevent  the  sample 
from  absorbing  moisture  during  weighing,  it  is  best  to  use  a 
weighing-bott  e  for  holding  the  dried  fibre.  The  sample  before 
drying  is  placed  in  a  weighing-bottle  (the  weight  of  which  has 
been  ascertained  previously)  and  heated  in  an  air-oven  at  100°  C. 
for  the  time  specified,  during  which  the  cover  of  the  weighing- 
bottle  is  removed.  After  the  drying  process  is  completed  the 
stopper  is  replaced  in  the  weighing-bottle;  the  latter  is  taken 
from  the  oven,  allowed  to  cool,  and  is  then  weighed.  The  dif- 
ference between  this  weight  and  the  weight  of  the  empty  bottle 
will  give  the  amount  of  dry  fibre. 

Treatment  with  a  boiling  solution  of  3  per  cent,  hydrochloric 
acid  for  the  purpose  of  removing  finishing  materials  is  rather  too 
severe,  as  the  acid  will  act  on  the  wool  and  the  cotton,  some- 
times causing  considerable  error.  Boiling  with  a  i  per  cent, 
solution  of  acid  for  ten  minutes  is  to  be  preferred. 

The  following  is  given  as  a  practical  method  to  determine  if 
shoddy  contains  cotton  and  silk  fibres :  Boil  10  gms.  of  the  shoddy 
to  be  tes  ed  for  one  hour  in  400  cc.  of  water  containing  0.8  gm. 
of  alum,  0.3  gm.  of  tartar,  i  cc.  of  hydrochloric  acid,  o.i  gm.  of 
chrome,  and  0.05  gm.  of  bluestone.  Rinse  and  dye  with  0.3 
gm.  of  logwood  extract.  Rinse  and  dry.  The  undyed  fibres  are 
then  picked  out  and  examined;  cotton  will  remain  white,  while 
silk  will  be  colored  a  dingy  red. 


388 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


The  analysis  of  heavy  pile  fabrics  containing  a  mixture  of 
fibres  is  especially  difficult  unless  the  fabric  is  disintegrated.  In 
the  analysis  of  plush  for  the  amount  of  silk  present,  Richardson 
suggests  treating  the  sample  with  a  boiling  solution  of  basic  zinc 
chloride  in  the  manner  previously  described;  but  when  silk  is  to 
be  determined  in  light  fabrics  (especially  in  the  presence  of  wool), 
it  is  best  to  treat  the  sample  for  one  to  three  minutes  with  a  cold 
solution  of  ammoniacal  nickel  oxide.  He  gives  the  following 
comparison  of  results  in  the  analysis  of  a  sample  of  plush,  using 
the  three  different  methods  for  dissolving  the  silk: 


By  Solution 
of  Ammoniacal 
Nickel  Oxide. 

By  Solution 
of  Basic 
Zinc  Chloride. 

By  Copper- 
glycerol 
Reagent. 

II  .  34 

II  .00 

Silk 

4o   60 

Cotton 

/T 

Samples  of  plush  with  hard  cotton  backs  may  best  be  analyzed 
by 'successive  treatment  with  acid  and  copper-glycerol  reagent. 
On  other  cotton  material,  however,  this  method  is  not  suitable; 
nor  is  it  to  be  used  in  the  presence  of  wool,  as  this  fibre  is  consid- 
erably dissolved  by  the  copper-glycerol  reagent. 

The  following  table  by  Richardson  shows  a  comparison  of 
the  three  methods  employed  for  dissolving  silk: 


Fibre. 

Actually 
Present. 

Percentage  Obtained  by 

Ammoniacal 
Nickel  Oxide. 

Basic  Zinc 
Chloride. 

Copper-glycerol 
Reagent. 

Silk  

5-84 
76.31 
I7-85 

5-92 
76.58 
17-5° 

5-52 
80.08 
14.40 

18.80 
64.05 
I7-I5 

Wool  

Cotton  

The  ammoniacal  nickel  oxide  solution  appears  to  give  the  best 
result;  hence,  in  analyzing  a  sample  containing  silk,  wool,  and 
cotton,  it  is  best  to  first  remove  the  silk  by  means  of  this  reagent. 
The  insoluble  residue  left  after  this  treatment  is  boiled  with  a 
i  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid,  washed  well  in  fresh 
water,  and  then  boiled  for  five  to  ten  minutes  in  a  2  per  cent. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS   OF   THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES.         389 


solution  of  caustic  soda,  which  is  sufficient  to  completely  remove 
the  wool  without  materially  affecting  the  cotton. 

From  experiments  conducted  at  the  Philadelphia  Textile 
School  *  the  following  comparative  results  have  been  obtained  in 
the  analysis  of  textile  materials  by  the  different  methods  suggested. 

(a)  Analysis  of  wool-cotton  mixtvre: 


Fibre. 

Dissolving  Woo]  by 
Caustic  Potash. 

Dissolving  Cotton 
by  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

56.7 
43-3 

55-2 
44-8 

63-7 

36.3 

64.2 
35-8 

Wool  

Analysis  of  wool-silk  mixture : 


Fibre. 

With  Hydrochloric 
Acid. 

With  Ammoniacal 
Nickel  Oxide. 

With  Basic  Zinc 
Chloride. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Wool 

76.6 
23-4 

76.24 
23.76 

78.5 
21-5 

77-3 
22.7 

8l.7 
18.3 

71-5 
28.5 

Silk 

(c)  Analysis  cf  cotton-silk  mixture: 


Fibre. 

With  Hy 
Ac 

irochloric 
id. 

With  Ammoniacal 
Nickel  Oxide. 

With  Basic  Zinc 
Chloride. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Cotton 

70. 
3°- 

67-5 
32.5 

65.12 
34-88 

64.42 

35-52 

71.11 
28.89 

70.13 
29.87 

Silk  

(</)  Analysis  of  wool-cotton-silk  mixture: 


Fibre. 

Silk  by  Ammoniacal 
Nickel  Oxide;   Wool 
by  Caustic  Potash. 

Silk  by  Ammoniacal 
Nickel  Oxide;  Cotton 
by  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Wool                                           

41.2 
42.7 
16.1 

42.  I 
41.6 
17-3 

41. 
48.1 
10.9 

39- 
49-2 
ii.  8 

Cotton  

Silk                                                          •  •    • 

*  See  Collingwood,  Textile  World  Record,  vol.  29,  pp.  874,  1193. 


39° 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


Fibre. 

Silk  by  Hydrochloric 
Acid;   Wool  bv 
Caustic  Potash. 

Silk  by  Hydrochloric 
Acid;    Cotton  by 
Sulphuric  Acid. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Wool        

38.9 
42.2 
18.9 

39-4 
38. 

22.6 

28.6 
47-7 
23-7 

24. 
48.8 
27.2 

Cotton            

Silk          .         

Fibre. 

Silk  by  Basic  Zinc 
Chloride;  Wool  by 
Caustic  Potash. 

Silk  by  Basic  Zinc 
Chloride;   Cotton 
by  Sulphuric  Acid. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Theoret. 

Found. 

Wool      

59- 
26.3 

J4-7 

57-5 
24.4 
18.1 

63-5 
19.7 
16.8 

61.6 

20. 
l8.4 

Silk                        

From  a  consideration  of  these  results  it  would  appear  that  in 
the  analysis  of  wool-cotton  mixtures  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
caustic  potash  dissolves  the  wool  gives  this  method  a  slight  prefer- 
ence over  the  somewhat  slower  one  of  destroying  the  cotton  by 
treatment  with  sulphuric  acid.  In  the  analysis  of  wool-silk  ma- 
terials the  treatment  with  hydrochloric  acid  is  slightly  better  than 
by  the  use  of  ammoniacal  nickel  oxide.  The  latter  reagent,  how- 
ever, is  the  better  to  use  for  dissolving  the  silk  from  cotton-silk 
mixtures,  as  the  cotton  is  too  readily  attacked  by  the  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid.  In  the  analysis  of  wool-cotton-silk  mixtures 
the  only  proper  reagent  to  employ  for  dissolving  the  silk  is  the 
solution  of  ammoniacal  nickel  oxide.  Though  the  use  of  this  re- 
agent is  rather  slow  compared  with  the  others,  it  is  thorough,  and 
its  action  on  the  other  two  fibres  is  but  slight. 

The  following  table  shows  the  corrections  to  be  applied  in  the 
calculations  of  results,  by  reason  of  the  action  of  the  different 
reagents  on  the  fibre  which  is  not  to  be  dissolved : 

Separation  of — 

(i)  Wool- cotton  mixtures: 

(a)  Wool  dissolved  by  caustic  potash ;  correc- 
tion for  loss  of  cotton 3.0  per  cent. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS   OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        391 

(6)  Cotton  dissolved  by  sulphuric  acid;  cor- 
rection for  loss  of  wool 2.5  per  cent. 

(2)  Wool- silk  mixtures: 

(a)  Silk  dissolved  by  hydrochloric  acid;   cor- 

rection for  loss  of  wool 0.5   "      ' ' 

(b)  Silk  dissolved  by  ammoniacal  nickel  oxide ; 

correction  for  loss  of  wool 1.5    "      ' ' 

(c)  Silk  dissolved  by  basic  zinc  chloride;  cor- 

rection for  loss  of  wool 2.0   ' '      ' ' 

(3)  Cotton-silk  mixtures: 

(a)  Silk  dissolved  by  hydrochloric  acid;  cor- 
rection for  loss  of  cotton 4.0  "  " 

(&)  Silk  dissolved  by  ammcniacal  nickel  oxide ; 

correction  for  loss  of  cotton i.o  "  " 

(c)  Silk  dissolved  by  basic  zinc  chloride;  cor- 
rection for  loss  of  cotton 1.5  "  " 

Allen  *  also  recommends  the  ammoniacal  nickel  solution  for 
use  in  dissolving  silk  from  a  mixture  of  fibres.  His  method  of 
analyzing  a  textile  sample  is  as  follows:  The  yarn  or  fabric  is  cut 
up  very  fine  with  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  thoroughly  dried  at  100°  C. 
One  gram  of  the  material  thus  prepared  is  treated  with  40  cc.  of 
the  cold  ammoniacal  nickel  oxide  solution  for  two  minutes.  The 
liquid  is  then  filtered,  and  the  residue,  consisting  of  wool  and 
cotton,  is  digested  for  two  or  three  minutes  in  a  boiling  solution 
of  i  per  cent,  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  then  washed  free  from 
acid,  dried  at  100°  C.,  and  weighed.  To  separate  the  wool  from 
the  cotton  the  residue  is  boiled  with  about  50  cc.  of  a  i  per  cent, 
solution  of  caustic  potash  for  ten  minutes,  and  the  solution  fil- 
tered. The  residue,  consisting  of  cotton,  is  washed  free  from 
alkali,  dried  at  100°  C.,  and  weighed. 

To  remove  gum  and  weighting  materials  from  goods  contain- 
ing silk,  Richardson  recommends  treatment  of  the  sample  with  a 
cold  2  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic  potash ;  this  not  only  removes 
any  gum,  but  also  decomposes  any  Prussian  blue  that  may  be 
present  (as  a  bottom  under  the  black  dye),  so  that  the  iron  may 

*  Commer.  Org.  Anal.,  vol.  4,  p.  523. 


392  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

be  more  easily  removed  by  subsequent  treatment  with  a  i  per  cent, 
solution  of  hydrochloric  acid.  Metallic  mordants,  however,  are 
difficult  to  remove  in  this  manner,  and  at  best  they  dissolve  only 
imperfectly;  it  is  best  to  calculate  their  amounts  from  the  quan- 
tity of  ash  left  after  the  ignition  of  the  sample. 

Oily  matter  (and  also  certain  dyes)  may  be  best  removed  by 
boiling  successively  with  methylated  spirits  and  ether.  By 
evaporation  of  the  solution  so  obtained  the  amount  of  oil  and  fat 
may  be  directly  determined. 

Hohnel  recommends  the  use  of  a  semi-saturated  solution  of 
chromic  acid  (see  p.  128)  for  the  quantitative  separation  of  mix- 
tures containing  wool,  cotton,  flax,  true  silk,  and  tussah  silk. 
On  boiling  such  a  mixture  of  fibres  in  this  solution  for  one  min- 
ute, the  wool  and  true  silk  will  be  completely  dissolved,  leaving 
as  a  residue  the  cotton,  flax,  and  tussah  silk. 

Other  methods  given  by  Hohnel  for  the  quantitative  analysis 
of  fabrics  containing  mixtures  of  the  fibres  mentioned  above  are 
as  folbws: 

(a)  Any  true  silk  is  first  removed  by  boiling  for  half  a  minute 
in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid;  tussah  silk  is  next  removed 
by  a  longer  boiling  in  the  acid  (three  minutes) ;  the  residue,  con- 
sisting of  wool  and  vegetable  fibres,  is  further  separated  in  the 
usual  manner  by  boiling  in  caustic  potash  solution. 

(b}  The  fabric  is  first  boiled  in  caustic  potash  solution,  which 
dissolves  the  wool  and  the  true  silk,  and  leaves  as  a  residue  (4) 
tussah  silk  and  vegetable  fibre.  A  second  sample  is  boiled  for 
three  minutes  with  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  which  dis- 
solves both  varieties  of  silk  and  leaves  as  a  residue  (B)  wool  and 
vegetable  fibre.  Residue  A  is  then  boiled  three  minutes  with 
concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  which  dissolves  the  tussah  silk 
and  leaves  the  cotton  as  a  final  residue.  By  subtracting  this 
amount  from  residue  B  the  amount  of  wool  is  obtained. 

(c)  A  sample  of  the  fabric  is  boiled  for  one  minute  in  a  semi- 
saturated  solution  of  chromic  acid,  which  dissolves  the  true  silk 
and  the  wool,  leaving  as  a  residue  the  tussah  silk  and  vegetable 
fibre.  From  this  residue  the  tussah  silk  is  removed  by  boiling 
for  three  minutes  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  leaving  the 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.         393 

vegetable  fibre  as  a  final  residue.  A  second  sample  is  boiled  for 
three  minutes  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  which  dissolves 
the  silks  and  leaves  the  wool  and  vegetable  fibre  as  a  residue. 
From  this  the  amount  of  wool  can  be  obtained  either  by  boiling 
in  caustic  potash  solution,  or  by  subtracting  the  cotton  previ- 
ously estimated.  Finally,  the  amount  of  true  silk  may  be  found 
by  subtracting  the  sum  of  the  other  constituents  from  the  total  in 
the  original  sample. 

5.  Analysis  of  Weighting  in  Silk  Fabrics. — The  practice  of 
adding  to  the  weight  of  silk  in  the  dyeing  and  finishing  operations 
has  become  so  common  that  it  is  frequently  desirable  to  ascer- 
tain in  a  sample  of  silk  goods  the  amount  of  true  fibre  present 
and  the  amount  and  character  of  weighting.  Black-dyed  silk 
is  especially  liable  to  contain  a  very  large  amount  of  weighting 
materials;  sometimes  the  degree  of  weighting  may  reach  as  hig'h 
as  400  per  cent,  or  even  more.  Colored  silks  are  usually  not 
weighted  to  such  a  great  extent,  but  they  will  frequently  be  found 
to  also  contain  considerable  adulteration.  Black-dyed  silks  are 
mostly  loaded  with  Prussian  blue  and  iron  tannate,  the  latter 
being  obtained  by  immersing  the  silk  in  a  solution  of  pyrolignite 
or  nitrate  of  iron,  and  subsequently  in  a  solution  of  cutch  or  other 
tannin.  Colored  silks  are  principally  weighted  with  tin  phos- 
phate obtained  by  treating  the  material  with  solutions  of  tin  per- 
chloride  and  sodium  phosphate.  Sometimes  light-colored  silks 
are  also  weighted  with  sugar,  magnesium  chloride,  etc.  Such 
materials  are  sduble  in  warm  water,  and  hence  their  use -is  easily 
detected. 

A  convenient  test  which  is  frequently  applicable  to  detect 
weighting  is  to  ignite  the  silk  fibre;  if  it  is  heavily  weighted  it  will 
not  inflame,  but  gradually  smoulder  away  and  leave  a  coherent 
ash  retaining  the  original  form  of  the  fibre. 

In  general  the  substances  which  may  be  present  as  weighting 
materials  are  iron,  as  ferrocyanide  or  tannate;  tin,  as  tannate, 
tungstate,  phosphate,  silicate,  or  hydroxide;  chromium  com- 
pounds; the  sulphates  or  chlorides  of  sodium,  magnesium,  and 
barium;  organic  matters,  such  as  sugar,  glucose,  gelatin,  tannins, 
etc. 


394  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

The  following  method  for  the  qualitative  analysis  of  weight- 
ing materials  on  silk  has  been  recommended  by  Silbermann:* 
Substances  that  are  easily  soluble,  such  as  sugar,  glucose,  gly- 
^cerol,  magnesium  salts,  etc.,  are  estimated  directly  by  boiling 
the  silk  with  water  and  testing  the  extract  with  Fehling's  solution, 
etc.f  From  2  to  3  gms.  of  the  silk  are  ignited  and  the  ash  is  tested 
for  tin  (which  may  be  present  in  the  fibre  as  basic  chloride  and 
stannic  acid),  chromium,  iron,  etc.J  Fatty  matters,  v  ax, 

*  Ghent.  Zeit.,  vol.  18,  p.  744. 

f  Fehling's  reagent  is  an  alkaline  solution  of  copper  sulphate  containing  potas- 
sium tartrate.  It  is  prepared  in  the  following  manner:  34.639  gms.  of  pure 
crystallized  copper  sulphate  are  dissolved  in  about  250  cc.  of  water;  173  gms.  of 
Rochelle  salt  (sodium  potassium  tartrate)  are  dissolved  in  the  same  quantity  of 
water;  60  gms.  of  caustic  soda  are  similarly  dissolved.  The  three  solutions  are 
then  mixed,  and  the  mixture  diluted  to  1000  cc.  with  water.  The  reagent  is 
employed  as  follows:  10  cc.  of  the  solution  are  diluted  with  40  cc.  of  water  and 
brought  to  a  boil;  there  is  then  added  a  portion  of  the  solution  to  be  tested  for 
sugar  (or  glucose)  which  has  previously  been  boiled  with  a  small  quantity  of 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  If  sugar  is  present,  the  Fehling's  solution  will  be  de- 
colorized and  a  bright-red  precipitate  of  cuprous  oxide  will  be  thrown  down.  This 
test  may  be  made  quantitative  by  using  a  known  quantity  of  sugar  solution,  filter- 
ng  off  the  cuprous  oxide,  igniting,  and  finally  weighing  as  copper  oxide  (CuO). 
In  order  to  determine  the  amount  of  sugar  (or  glucose)  corresponding  to  this 
latter,  reference  should  be  made  to  tables  constructed  by  Allihn  showing  the 
proper  equivalents  of  sugar  and  glucose  for  the  amounts  of  copper  oxide  deter- 
mined. 

J  These  metals  may  be  tested  for  in  the  ash  in  the  following  manner :  Moisten 
with  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid  and  re-ignite  in  order  to  be  certain  that  all  carbon 
is  removed.  Treat  the  residue  with  eight  to  ten  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid; 
and  gently  heat  until  fumes  are  evolved;  allow  to  cool  and  boil  with  water, 
dilute  to  about  100  cc.  with  water,  and  then  pass  hydrogen  sulphide  gas  through 
the  liquid;  filter,  and  examine  the  solution  and  precipitate  as  follows:  The 
aqueous  solution  may  contain  zinc  or  iron;  add  a  few  drops  of  bromin  water 
to  remove  excess  of  hydrogen  sulphide  and  to  oxidize  any  iron  present  to  the 
ferric  condition;  boil,  then  add  ammonia  in  slight  excess;  boil  again,  and  filter; 
if  there  is  a  precipitate,  it  may  contain  iron;  if  so,  it  should  be  brown  in  color; 
dissolve  in  a  little  hydrochloric  acid  and  add  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  potas- 
sium ferrocyanide;  a  blue  color  will  confirm  the  presence  of  iron.  The  filtrate, 
which  may  contain  zinc,  should  be  heated  to  the  boil,  and  a  few  drops  of  potas- 
sium ferrocyanide  solution  added;  a  white  precipitate  will  indicate  zinc.  The 
original  precipitate  produced  by  the  treatment  with  hydrogen  sulphide  is  next 
examined.  This  may  contain  lead,  tin,  or  copper;  it  is  fused  for  ten  minutes  in 
a  porcelain  crucible  with  2  gms.  of  a  mixture  of  potash  and  soda  ash  together 
with  i  gm.  of  sulphur.  On  cooling,  the  mass  is  boiled  with  water  and  filtered. 
The  residue  may  contain  lead  and  copper;  it  is  boiled  with  strong  hydrochloric 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES         395 

and  paraffin  are  detected  by  extraction  with  ether  or  benzene.* 
The  silk  is  soaked  in  warm  dilute  Hydrochloric  acid  (1:2);  if 
the  fibre  is  almost  decolorized  by  this  treatment,  only  a  slight 
yellow  tint  remaining,  whilst  the  solution  assumes  a  deep  brown- 
ish color  not  changed  to  violet  by  addition  of  lime-water,  it  is 
safe  to  conclude  that  the  silk  has  been  weighted  by  alternate 
passages  through  baths  of  iron  salts  and  tannin.  The  yellow 
color  of  the  fibre  is  due  to  a  residuum  of  tannin,  and  the  precise 
shade  (from  greenish  to  brownish  yellow)  enables  some  idea  to 
be  formed  as  to  the  nature  of  the  tanning  material  used  (sumac, 
divi-divi,  cutch,  etc.).  Decolorization  of  the  fibre,  the  acid 
extract  being  pink,  and  changing  to  violet  by  lime-water,  indi- 
cates a  logwood  black.  If  the  fibre  retain  a  deep  greenish  tint 
and  the  solution  be  yellow  and  unaffected  by  lime-water,  the 
black  is  dyed  on  a  bottom  of  Prussian  blue.  If  the  latter  has 
been  produced  during  the  final  stage  of  dyeing,  this  will  be  shown 
by  its  solubility  in  the  acid.  A  green  fibre  and  pink  solution, 
changing  to  violet  on  addition  of  lime-water,  indicate  a  logwood 
black  dyed  on  a  bottom  of  Berlin  blue.  In  the  hydrochloric 

acid,  and  a  few  drops  of  bromin  water  are  added  for  the  purpose  of  completely 
oxidizing  any  copper  sulphide  present;  filter  if  necessary,  and  add  to  the  filtrate 
an  excess  of  ammonia,  when  a  blue  color  will  indicate  presence  of  copper.  Acid- 
ulate the  liquid  with  acetic  acid  and  divide  into  two  portions:  to  the  first  add  a  few 
drops  of  a  solution  of  potassium  bichromate;  a  yellow  precipitate  will  confirm 
the  presence  of  lead;  to  the  other  add  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  potassium 
ferrocyanide,  when  a  brown  precipitate  or  coloration  will  indicate  presence  of 
copper.  The  filtrate  from  the  residue  after  the  above  fusion  is  acidulated  with 
acetic  acid,  when  a  yellow  precipitate  of  stannic  sulphide  will  indicate  the  pres- 
ence of  tin.  The  latter  test  may  be  confirmed  by  dissolving  the  precipitate  of 
stannic  sulphide  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  bromin  water.  The  filtered  solution 
is  then  boiled  with  small  pieces  of  metallic  iron  to  reduce  the  tin;  the  liquid  is 
diluted  and  filtered  and  a  drop  of  mercuric  chloride  solution  is  added,  when  a  white 
or  gray  turbidity  will  be  produced  if  tin  is  present. 

*  Japan  tram  silk  is  frequently  weighted  with  fatty  substances.  The  normal 
amount  of  fat  in  raw  silk  never  exceeds  0.06  per  cent.  A  direct  determination 
of  the  fatty  matters  may  be  made  by  treating  5  gms.  of  the  silk  sample  in  a 
stoppered  flask  with  pure  benzene  three  or  four  times  successively,  using  about 
60  cc.  of  the  solvent  each  time  and  allowing  it  to  act  from  two  to  four  hours  with 
frequent  shaking.  The  several  portions  of  benzene  are  brought  together  and 
evaporated  to  dryness  in  a  tared  dish  and  the  fatty  residue  is  v/eighed.  Another 
method  is  to  extract  with  ether  in  a  Soxhlet  apparatus. 


396  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

acid  solution,  such  metals  as  lead,  tin,  iron,  chromium,  and  alu- 
minium may  be  determined.  Blacks  produced  by  artificial  dyes 
on  a  bottom  of  iron-tannin  or  iron-blue-tannin  may  be  recognized 
by  the  coloration  imparted  to  acid  and  caustic  soda  solutions. 
\\  ith  blacks  produced  solely  with  coal-tar  dyes,  treatment  with 
a  hydrochloric  acid  solution  of  stannous  chloride  does  not  affect 
anilin  and  alizarin  blacks;  naphthol  black  is  changed  to  reddish 
brown,  and  wool  black  becomes  yellowish  brown.  Tannin  mate- 
rials in  general  may  be  extracted  by  alkalies,  and  subsequently 
precipitated  and  distinguished  by  ferric  acetate.  To  remove  the 
whole  of  the  weighting  material  and  the  dye,  the  silk  should  be 
boiled  with  acid  potassium  oxalate,  washed  with  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid,  and  finally  treated  with  soda  solution.  When  iron 
and  tin  are  both  present  in  the  fibre,  it  is  best  to  first  extract  the 
tin  by  treatment  with  a  solution  of  sodium  sulphide.* 

Vignon  has  proposed  using  the  specific  gravity  of  the  silk 
sample  as  a  means  of  determining  the  proportion  of  weighting 
materials  present;  but  this  method  cannot  be  recommended  as 
being  at  all  practical,  as  the  specific  gravity  of  the  weighting 
materials  themselves  would  have  to  be  known.  The  specific 
gravity  of  the  silk  may  readily  be  determined  as  follows :  A  small 
sample  is  weighed  as  usual  in  the  air;  it  is  then  suspended  in 
benzene  and  the  weight  again  taken.  The  difference  between 
the  two  weighings  will  give  the  loss  of  weight  in  benzene;  this 
loss  divided  into  the  original  weight  in  air  and  multiplied  by  the 
density  of  the  benzene  will  give  the  specific  gravity  of  the  silk. 
The  specific  gravity  of  silk  and  of  other  fibres  determined  in  this 
way  is  as  follows: 

Silk,  raw i .  30  to  i .  37 

Silk,  boiled-off i .  25 

Wool i .  28  to  i .  33 

Cotton i .  50  to  1.55 

Mohair i .  30 

Hemp i .  48 

Ramie 1.51  to  1.52 

Linen 1.50 

Jute i .  48 

*  Persoz  recommends  in  testing  for  tin  weighting  on  dark-colored  and  black 
silks  to  boil  the  sample  for  a  few  minutes  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid. 
Then  dilute  and  filter  the  acid,  and  pass  hydrogen  sulphide  into  it,  when  a  yellow 
precipitate  (SnS)  would  indicate  the  presence  of  tin. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE    TEXTILE  FIBRES         397 

For  the  examination  of  white  silk  Allen  recommends  the 
following:*  (i)  The  total  soluble  weighting  materials  are  deter- 
mined by  treating  a  known  weight  of  the  sample  four  to  five  times 
with  hot  water,  redrying,  and  weighing.  As  the  hygroscopic 
character  of  silk  is  very  variable,  it  is  best  to  employ  a  blank 
sample  of  a  standard  silk,  and  after  redrying  until  the  blank 
sample  has  regained  its  normal  weight  the  test  sample  is  weighed, 
and  the  loss  represents  the  matters  soluble  in  water.  In  the 
solution,  after  suitable  evaporation,  glucose  may  be  determined 
directly  by  means  of  Fehling's  solution  (see  p.  39-;),  and  cane- 
sugar  after  inversion  by  boiling  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid. 
Sulphates  and  chlorides  and  magnesium  f  may  be  detected  and 
determined  as  usual.  Stannic  oxide  (if  the  silk  has  been  weighted 
with  tin  compounds)  will  be  left  as  a  white  residue  on  igniting  a 
sample  of  the  silk  in  a  porcelain  crucible.  If  much  tin  is  present, 
the  silk  will  burn  with  difficulty,  and  the  ash  will  retain  the  shape 
of  the  original  silk.  The  weight  of  the  ash  (assuming  it  to  be 
wholly  stannic  oxide,  SnO2)  may  be  calculated  to  the  form  in 
which  the  tin  exists  in  the  weighted  silk  (as  metastannic  acid, 
SnO2-H2O)  by  multiplying  it  by  the  factor  1.12. 

Silbermann  +  recommends  for  the  analysis  of  white  silk  the 
following  procedure:  A  weighed  portion  of  the  silk  is  boiled  with 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  to  dissolve  any  tannin  lakes  of  tin  or 
other  metals,  and  in  the  solution  tannin  is  tested  for  by  the  addi- 
tion of  an  excess  of  sodium  acetate  and  ferric  chloride.  If  tannin 

*  Commer.  Org.  Anal.,  vol.  ^,  p.  527. 

f  Sulphates  are  detected  by  taking  a  small  portion  of  the  solution  in  a  test- 
tube,  adding  a  few  drops  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  and  then  a  few  drops  of  a 
solution  of  barium  chloride;  the  production  of  a  white  precipitate  indicates  the 
presence  of  sulphates.  Chlorides  are  detected  by  adding  a  drop  of  nitric  acid 
to  a  test  portion  of  the  solution,  and  then  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  silver 
nitrate;  a  white  precipitate  will  indicate  the  presence  of  chlorides.  Magnesium 
is  detected  by  adding  to  the  test  portion  of  the  solution  a  few  drops  of  ammonia 
followed  by  a  solution  of  sodium  phosphate;  the  formation  of  a  white  precipi- 
tate indicates  the  presence  of  magnesium.  These  tests  may  be  made  quantita- 
tive by  taking  definite  aliquot  portions  of  the  solution,  collecting  the  precipitates 
produced,  and  after  ignition  in  a  porcelain  crucible  weighing  as  barium  sulphate, 
BaSO4,  silver  chloride,  AgCl,  and  magnesium  pyrophosphate,  M^PzOj,  re- 
spectively. 

%  Chem.  Zeit.,  vol.  20,  p.  472. 


398  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

lakes  are  present,  the  determination  of  the  weighting  materials 
consists  in:  (i)  precipitation  of  the  tannin  from  the  aqueous 
solution  with  gelatin;  (2)  estimation  of  the  tannin  in  this  pre- 
cipitate, and  of  sugar,  etc.,  in  the  nitrate;  (3)  successive  treat  • 
ment  of  the  silk  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  and  sodium  car- 
bonate, and  precipitation  of  tannin  from  both  solutions  by  means 
of  gelatin;  (4)  ignition  of  the  silk  and  determination  of  metallic 
weighting.  If  the  ash  is  not  completely  soluble  in  hot  moder- 
ately concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  it  may  contain  barium 
sulphate  or  silica.  To  calculate  the  percentage  of  weighting 
material,  W,  in  the  silk  examined,  Silbermann  employs  the  fol- 
lowing formula,  in  which  a  is  the  weight  of  the  sample  before 
treatment,  b  the  weight  after  extraction  with  water,  p  the  stannic 
oxide  left  on  ignition,  and  d  the  loss  in  weight  during  the  boiling 
of  the  fibre  itself.  This  is  taken  at  20  to  25  for  boiled-off  silk, 
5  to  9  for  souple  silk,  and  o  to  2  for  ecru. 

a(ioo-d) 

W=~—        -  —  loo. 
b-i.i$p 

The  detection  of  tin  or  aluminium  compounds  in  the  weight- 
ing of  white  silk  may  be  carried  out  by  dyeing  a  sample  of  the 
silk  with  alizarin  in  the  presence  of  chalk,  then  rinsing  and  soap- 
ing. Unweighted  silk  will  retain  .only  a  pink  color;  if  weighted 
with  tin,  the  color  will  be  orange,  and  if  weighted  with  aluminium, 
the  color  will  be  red. 

Dark- colored  and  black  silks  may  contain  hydroxides  of  tin, 
iron,  and  chromium,  fatty  matters,  tannin,  Prussian  blue,  and 
various  coloring-matters.  Treatment  of  logwood-dyed  silk  with 
hydrochloric  acid  (1.07  sp.  gr.)  at  50°  to  60°  C.  will  give  a  red 
color  in  the  absence  of  Prussian  blue,  or  leave  a  blue-black  color 
if  it  is  present.  If  Prussian  blue  is  suspected,  the  silk  should  be 
treated  with  dilute  caustic  soda,  the  solution  then  acidulated 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  ferric 
chloride  then  added ;  a  blue  precipitate  will  be  produced  if  Prussian 
blue  was  originally  present.  The  metallic  oxides  in  the  residue 
left  on  igniting  a  sample  of  the  silk  are  best  examined  by  fusing 
the  ash  with  a  mixture  of  nitre  and  sodium  carbonate  in  a  plati- 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.         399 

num  or  silver  crucible.  The  fusion  is  treated  with  water,  when 
the  tin  and  chromium  will  go  into  solution  as  sodium  stannate 
and  chromate  respectively,  and  the  iron  will  remain  insoluble  as 
ferric  oxide.  After  filtering  and  acidulating  the  filtrate  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  the  tin  may  be  thrown  down  as  sulphide  by 
treatment  with  hydrogen  sulphide,  and  after  filtering  off  the  latter 
the  chromium  is  precipitated  by  addition  of  ammonia.  For  the 
detection  of  tannin  a  sample  of  the  silk  should  be  boiled  in  water, 
and  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  ferric  acetate  added,  when  a 
blue-black  color  is  produced  in  the  presence  of  tannin.  The 
amount  of  tannin  may  be  determined  by  dissolving  it  from  the 
silk  by  means  of  an  alkaline  soap-bath,  and  finding  the  loss  of 
weight  on  redrying.  To  determine  the  total  proportion  of 
weighting  materials,  a  definite  quantity  of  the  silk  dried  at  110°  C. 
should  be  boiled  for  an  hour  in  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  and  then  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  (250  cc.  of  commer- 
cial acid  per  litre).  This  treatment  is  repeated  four  times,  wash- 
ing the  sample  between  each  bath.  The  silk  must  be  carefully 
handled,  as  it  becomes  quite  brittle;  after  drying  at  no°C.  it 
is  weighed;  the  loss  in  weight  represents  the  total  weighting 
materials.  As  a  certain  loss  of  silk  occurs  in  this  treatment,  the 
amount  of  weighting  material  found  is  generally  somewhat  in 
excess  of  the  truth.  The  chief  source  of  error,  however,  is  in 
the  uncertainty  of  the  allowance  to  be  made  for  loss  in  the  weight 
of  the  silk  by  boiling  off.  For  boiled-off  silk  this  figure  (d)  is 
taken  at  25  per  cent.;  for  souple  silk  at  8  per  cent.;  for  e*cru  at 
o  per  cent.;  and  for  fancy  slks  at  10  per  cent.  Calling  p  the 
original  weight  of  the  sample,  and  D  the  weight  after  treatment, 
the  percentage  of  weighting,  W,  may  be  calculated  from  the  fol- 
lowing formula: 

(loo-d)X(p-D) 
D 

In  cases  where  the  treated  silk  leaves  a  sensible  amount  (A)  of 
ash  on  ignition,  the  following  formula  must  be  used: 


n, 

D-i.25A 


400  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

as  the  weight  of  the  ash,  if  multiplied  by  the  factor  1.25,  will  give 
approximately  the  amount  of  metallic  hydroxides  retained  by 
the  treated  silk. 

The  foregoing  method  of  Silbermann,  however,  is  not  suf- 
ficiently accurate  for  such  a  long  and  tedious  process. 

The  method  of  analyzing  weighted  silk,  recommended  by 
Konigs  of  the  silk-conditioning  establishment  at  Crefeld,  is  as 
follows:  (i)  Determine  moisture  by  drying  at  no°C.  (2)  Fatty 
matters  by  extraction  with  ether.  (3)  Boil  out  the  silk- glue  with 
water.  (4)  Dissolve  out  Prussian  blue  with  dilute  caustic  soda; 
reprecipitate  by  acidifying  and  adding  ferric  chloride,  ignite  pre- 
cipitate with  nitric  acid,  and  weigh  as  ferric  oxide;  i  part  of 
Fe2O3  =1.5  parts  of  Prussian  blue.  (5)  Estimate  stannic  oxide  in 
ash  of  silk  and  calculate  as  catechu-tannate  of  tin;  i  part  of 
SnO2  =  3-33  parts  of  catechu-tannate.  (6)  Estimate  total  ferric 
oxide  in  ash,  subtract  that  existing  as  Prussian  blue,  and  the 
amount  naturally  present  in  dyed  silk  (0.4  to  0.7  per  cent.),  and 
calculate  the  remainder  to  tannate  of  iron;  i  part  of  Fe2O3=  7.2 
parts  of  ferric  tannate. 

Perhaps  the  most  accurate  method  of  analyzing  silk  for  total 
amount  of  weighting  is  to  determine  the  amount  of  nitrogen 
present  as  silk  by  Kjeldahl's  process.*  To  do  this  it  is  first  nec- 
essary to  remove  all  gelatin,  Prussian  blue,  or  other  nitrogenous 
matters.  This  is  effected  by  boiling  a  weighed  quantity  of  the 
silk  (about  2  gms.)  with  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  carbonate 
for  thirty  minutes.  The  silk  is  then  washed,  and  heated  to  60°  C. 
for  thirty  minutes  in  water  containing  i  per  cent,  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  afterwards  well  washed  in  hot  water.  This  treatment 
with  alkali  and  acid  should  be  repeated  until  the  sample  no  longer 
has  a  blue  color.  With  souple  or  ecru  silks,  ammonia  or  ammo- 
nium carbonate  should  be  used  instead  of  sodium  carbonate, 
and  the  silk  should  be  finally  boiled  for  an  hour  and  a  half  in  a 
solution  containing  25  gms.  of  soap  per  litre.  After  this  prepara- 
tion the  nitrogen  determination  is  conducted  as  follows:  The 
sample  is  placed  in  a  round-bottomed  flask  of  hard  glass,  and 

*  Gnehm  and  Blenner,  Rev.  Gen.  Mat.  Col.,  April,  1898. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES         401 

treated  with  about  20  cc.  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  single  drop  of  mercury.  The  flask  is  then  heated,  gently 
at  first,  and  then  to  a  vigorous  boil;  then  10  gms.  of  potassium 
sulphate  are  added  and  the  boiling  continued  until  the  contents 
of  the  flask  are  clear  and  colorless.  The  contents  are  then 
washed  into  a  distilling-flask  and  connected  with  a  suitable  con- 
denser. By  means  of  a  tap-funnel,  an  excess  of  caustic  soda 
solution  is  gradually  added,  together  with  a  little  sodium  sul- 
phide to  decompose  any  nitrogen  compounds  of  mercury  that 
may  have  been  formed.  Some  granulated  zinc  is  placed  in  the 
flask  to  prevent  bumping,  and  the  distillate  is  collected  in  a  meas- 
ured quantity  of  standard  acid,  which  takes  up  the  ammonia 
that  distils  over.  Excess  of  acid  is  determined  by  titration  with 
standard  alkali,  using  methyl  orange  as  an  indicator  of  neutral- 
ity. The  above  method  is  based  on  the  fact  that  when  silk  (in 
common  with  the  great  majority  of  other  nitrogenous  organic 
substances)  is  heated  with  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  the  whole 
of  the  nitrogen  present  is  eventually  converted  into  ammonia. 
Air-dried  silk  with  n  per  cent,  of  hygroscopic  moisture  contains 
17.6  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  consequently  the  amount  of  true  silk 
in  a  sample  may  be  obtained  by  multiplying  the  percentage  of 
nitrogen  found  by  the  factor  5.68.  This  method  yields  very  accu- 
rate results  if  the  determination  of  the  nitrogen  is  carefully  con- 
ducted. 

A  method  for  the  determination  of  the  weighting  on  silk 
which  appears  to  be  capable  of  yielding  very  good  results  is  that 
suggested  by  Gnehm.*  It  depends  on  the  fact  that  the  silk 
fibre  does  not  appear  to  be  injured  by  treatment  with  either 
hydrofluosilicic  acid  or  hydrofluoric  acid.  The  method  is  car- 
ried out  as  follows :  About  2  gms.  of  the  silk  to  be  tested  are  im- 
mersed, with  frequent  stirring,  for  one  hour  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature of  100  cc.  of  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrofluosilicic 
acid.  The  treatment  is  then  repeated  with  100  cc.  of  fresh  acid 
of  the  same  strength.  The  silk  is  then  washed  several  times 
with  distilled  water  and  dried.  The  loss  in  weight  corresponds 

*  Zeits.  Farben-u.  Text.  Chem.,  1903,  p.  209. 


402  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

to  the  amount  of  inorganic  weighting  materials  present.  This 
method  serves  very  well  with  silk  weighted  with  stannic  phos- 
phate and  silicate,  but  does  not  appear  to  be  suitable  for  the 
estimation  of  weighting  on  black-dyed  silks  containing  iron  salts. 
It  is  said  that  oxalic  acid  may  also  be  used  (Miiller,  Zeits.  Farben- 
u.  Text.  Clem.,  1903,  i6o).for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  inor- 
ganic weighting  materials  from  silks,  without  injury  to  the  silk 
fibre  itself. 

Taking  all  things  into  consideration,  the  author  considers  the 
following  method  to  be  the  one  best  adapted  for  the  com- 
mercial analysis  of  weighted  silks:  A  portion  (about  0.5  gm.) 
of  the  sample  is  placed  in  a  weighing-bottle  and  dried  in 
an  air-bath  at  105°  C.  to  constant  weight.  It  is  then  boiled 
in  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  hydrofluoric  acid  for  five  minutes, 
rinsed  with  water,  .and  boiled  for  five  minutes  in  a  2  per  cent, 
solution  of  soda  ash  and  washed.  This,  alternate  treatment 
with  the  hydrofluoric  acid  and  soda  ash  solutions  is  repeated 
three  times,  after  which  the  sample  is  finally  rinsed,  dried  at 
105°  C.,  and  reweighed.  The  loss  in  weight  will  represent  weight- 
ing materials.  The  hydrofluoric  acid  may  be  prepared  by  di- 
luting ii  cc.  of  commercial  hydrofluoric  acid  to  400  cc.  with 
water,  and  the  soda  ash  solution  by  dissolving  2  gms.  of  sodium 
carbonate  in  100  cc.  of  water.  Three  alternate  treatments  with 
these  reagents  will  generally  suffice  to  remove  all  weighting 
materials  without  appreciable  injury  to  the  silk  fibre,  though  to 
be  accurate  the  treatments  should  be  repeated  until  no»  further 
loss  in  weight  is  observed. 

The  amount  of  weighting  on  silk  is  usually  calculated  on  a 
basis  of  ounces  per  pound  of  raw  silk,  and  expressed  between  a 
limiting  variation  of  2  ozs. ;  and  it  is  further  reckoned  that  i  p:  und 
of  raw  silk  is  equivalent  to  12.4  ozs.  of  pure  silk  fibre  (boiled -off). 
A  sample  of  silk  described  as  22/24,  for  example,  would  mean 
that  22, -to  24  ozs.  of  such  silk  would  be  equivalent  to  16  ozs.  of 
raw  silk.  The  amount  of  weighting  as  determined  by  the  chemist 
should  be  calculated  to  percentage  on  the  actual  silk  present,  and 
then  by  use  of  the  following  table  the  corresponding  ounces 
may  be  fcund. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        4°3 


Per  Cent. 
Weighting. 

Ounces. 

Per  Cent. 

Weighting. 

Ounces. 

0-   13 

12/14 

142-158 

3%2 

13-  29 

14/16 

158-174 

32/34 

29-  45 

16/18 

I74-I*  O 

34/36 

45-61 

18/20 

190-206 

36/38 

61-  77 

20/22 

206—222 

38/4° 

77-  93 

22/24 

222-238 

40/42 

93-109 

24/26 

238-254 

42/44 

109-125 

26/28 

254-270 

44/46 

125-142 

28/30 

270 

46/48 

For  example:  A  sample  of  silk  dried  at  105° C.  to  constant 
weight  proved  to  be  0.45  gm.  After  treatments  with  hydrofluoric 
acid  and  so  daash  solutions  as  above  described,  dried  again  at 
105°  C.,  and  reweighed,  gave  0.31  gm.of  silk  as  a  residue.  Hence, 

0.45  gram  =  weighted  silk; 
0.31      "     =  pure  silk; 


and 


0.14     "     =  weighting, 
0.14X100 


0.31 


=  45  per  cent,  weighting, 


calculated  from  a  basis  of  pure  silk.  By  reference  to  the  fore- 
going table,  it  is  seen  that  45  per  cent,  weighting  corresponds 
to  18/20  ozs.  of  silk. 

As  the  silk  fibre  is  very  uniform  in  its  structure  and  weight  for 
any  given.length,  an  empirical  method  for  determining  the  weight- 
ing -on  silk  is  as  follows:  The  size  of  a  single  cocoon-thread 
averages  2\  deniers  (see  p.  99);  that  is  to  say,  500  metres  of 
such  a  filament  will  average  0.125  gm.  in  weight.  Hence,  if  yarn 
is  being  tested,  a  sample  is  observed  under  the  microscope  and  the 
number  of  individual  filaments  present  is  counted;  this  number 
divided  by  two  will  give  the  number  of  cocoon-threads  (as  each 
cocoon- thread  consists  of  two  filaments).  A  convenient  length 
of  the  yarn  is  then  taken  and  weighed,  and  from  this  the  weight 
of  500  metres  is  calculated.  By  multiplying  the  number  of 
cocoon- threads  observed  by  the  factor  0.125,  we  obtain  the  weight 
of  500  metres  of  the  yarn  as  pure  silk.  The  difference  between 


404  THE   TEXTILE  FiBRES. 

this  weight  and  the  former  represents  weighting,  from  which 
the  percentage  and  ounces  of  \veighting  may  be  calculated  as 
given  in  the  foregoing  paragraph. 

For  example:  A  portion  of  a  single  thread  from  a  skein  of 
silk  yarn  was  carefully  teased  out  so  as  to  separate  the  individual 
filaments,  and  these  were  counted  under  a  microscope.  A 
series  of  three  observations  gave  19,  17,  and  20  filaments,  or  a 
mean  of  18.6.  The  weight  of  50  metres  of  the  silk  was  0.146 
gm.  Hence 

o.  146  X 10    =i  .460  grams  =  weight  of  500  metres ; 

0.125  X— —  =  1.162     "     =  weight  of  500  metres  of  pure  silk; 
0.298    ' '      =  weighting, 

0.298X100 
and  — - — -7 =25.6  per  cent,  weighting, 

and  this  is  equivalent  to  14/16  oz.  silk. 

In  case  the  sample  to  be  examined  is  a  woven  fabric,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  pick  apart  the  warp-  and  weft-threads,  and  make 
separate  counts  of  the 'filaments  in  each;  then  definite  lengths 
of  these  threads  may  be  measured  off  and  weighed,  and  the  cal- 
culation conducted  as  before.  In  making  the  count  of  the  fila- 
ments in  each  thread  of  silk,  the  latter  should  be  teased  out  as 
carefully  as  possible,  in  order  to  separate  the  individual  filaments. 
This  may  readily  be  done  by  laying  the  thread  on  a  glass  micro- 
scope slide  slightly  moistened  with  water  and  separating  the 
filaments  with  a  needle.  The  number  of  filaments  may  then 
be  counted  through  the  microscope,  using  a  low  magnification. 
The  count  may  also  be  made  with  the  aid  of  a  good  magnifying- 
glass,  but  with  more  difficulty  and  less  accuracy  than  when  a 
microscope  is  employed.  At  least  three  separate  counts  of 
different  threads  should  be  made,  and  the  average  of  these  taken 
as  the  true  number. 

In  case  the  length  of  the  silk  threads  is  measured  in  yards  and 
not  metres,  a  convenient  amount  to  take  for  a  test  is  20  yds., 
then  the  following  formula  will  hold. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        4°5 

Let  A  =  weight  of  500  metres   of  the   weighted   silk  =  weight 

of  20  yds.  X2y.3; 

B=  weight  of  500  metres  of  pure  silk  =  number  of  filaments 
X  0.062, 

and     —^—X  100=  per  cent,  of  weighting. 

The  above  formula  is  for  weights  expressed  in  grams;   in 
case  the  weights  employed  are  grains,  we  have 

A  =  weight  of  20  yds.  X  2  7.  3; 
B  =  number  of  filaments  X  0.956. 

j  _  -n 

and      —   —  X  100  =  per  cent,  of  weighting. 


These  formulas  may  be  simplified  as  follows: 

(a)  In  case  gram  weights  are  used 

w=  weight  of  20  yds.  of  the  silk; 
n  =  number  of  filaments  ; 


4381^  —  n 


X 100=  per  cent,  of  weighting. 


n 
(£>)  In  case  grain  weights  are  used 

28.  AW— n 

— X 1 00=  per  cent,  of  weighting. 

n 

The  accuracy  of  this  method  for  determining  the  degree  of 
weighting  of  silk  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the  fibre  is  very  uniform 
in  size,  and  hence  the  weight  of  a  given  length  of  fibre  may  be 
assumed  as  being  constant.  This,  however,  is  only  true  within 
certain  limits  and  with  respect  to  certain  grades  of  silk.  By 
reference  to  the  table  on  page  QQ,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  variation 
in  size  (or  weight  for  a  given  length)  of  silks  from  different  coun- 
tries is  quite  considerable;  hence,  to  apply  the  foregoing  method 


406  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

properly,  the  origin  of  the  silk  should  be  known.  In  the  case  of 
tussah  or  other  varieties  of  wild  silk  the  variation  in  size  is 
much  more  considerable;  hence  the  limit  of  error  in  this  method 
is  much  larger  and  the  results  are  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  be 
at  all  reliable. 

6.  Oil  and  Grease  in  Yarns  and  Fabrics. — An  estimation  of 
the  amount  of  oil  and  grease  is  frequently  required  for  woolen 
or  worsted  cloth,  yarn,  tops,  roving,  etc.  A  method  leading 
to  approximate  results,  which  are  generally  sufficiently  accurate 
for  commercial  purposes,  is  to  weigh  off  a  sample  of  the  material 
to  be  tested  and  scour  it  for  thirty  minutes  in  a  solution  containing 
5  gms.  of  good  quality  soap  per  litre  at  a  temperature  of  140°  F. 
It  is  then  rinsed  well  in  warm  water  a  couple  of  times  to  remove 
all  of  the  soapy  liquor,  and  then  dried.  Before  reweighing  it 
should  be  left  in  the  air  for  about  an  hour,  so  as  to  come  to  the 
same  hygroscopic  condition  as  when  first  weighed.  The  loss 
in  weight  will  represent  the  oil,  grease,  and  any  dirt  in  the  fibre, 
and  may  be  called  the  "  scouring  loss." 

A  more  accurate  method  to  determine  the  oil  and  grease  is 
to  weigh  off  about  5  gms.  of  the  material  and  agitate  in  a  flask 
with  about  100  cc.  of  petroleum  ether  for  twenty  minutes.  This 
will  dissolve  all  oily  matters  present,  and  the  liquid  may  be 
poured  into  a  weighed  evaporating- dish.  The  residual  fibre 
is  washed  with  about  100  cc.  more  of  petroleum  ether;  the  latter 
is  added  to  the  first  extraction  and  the  whole  evaporated  to 
dryness  on  a  water-bath,  and  the  weight  of  the  residue  of  oil  in 
the  evaporating  dish  is  determined,  cr  the  extracted  fibre  may 
be  removed  from  the  flask,  dried,  exposed  to  the  air  for  an  houi 
and  reweighed,  and  the  loss  in  weight  will  represent  grease  and 
oil. 

In  the  two  preceding  methods  where  the  air-dry  weights  are 
used,  care  should  be  especially  taken  to  weigh  the  material 
before  and  after  under  the  same  hygroscopic  conditions,  other- 
wise considerable  variations  in  results  may  be  obtained  by  reason 
of  the  fibre  absorbing  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  moisture; 
where  accurate  results  are  demanded,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
make  three  weighings,  as  follows:  (a)  the  weight  of  the  air-dry 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        407 

material,  (6)  the  weight  of  the  material  after  drying  at  105°  C. 
for  one  hour,  (c)  the  weight  of  the  extracted  material  after  drying 
for  one  hour  at  105°  C.  In  this  manner  the  somewhat  uncertain 
factor  of  moisture  is  eliminated.  The  percentage  of  grease  in 
the  material,  however,  should  be  calculated  on  the  weight  of  the 
air-dry  fibre.  For  example:  a  sample  of  woolen  yarn  weighing 
5.026  gms.  was  dried  at  105°  C.  for  one  hour  and  when  weighed 
again  gave  4.516  gms.;  after  extraction  with  petroleum  ether 
and  drying  again  as  before,  it  weighed  4.271  gms.  The  amount  of 
grease  in  this  case  was  therefore  4.516—4.271  =  0.245  gms.  or 
(0.245  X  IOO)-H  5.026  =  4.67  per  cent. 

A  still  better  and  more  accurate  method  for  the  determinaticn 
of  grease  is  to  treat  a  weighed  sample  of  the  material  in  a  Soxhlet 
extraction  apparatus  with  petroleum  ether,  evaporating  off  the 
solvent  and  weighing  the  residue  of  grease.  The  analysis  is 
determined  as  follows:  The  small  flask  of  the  apparatus  is  weighed 
and  then  about  half-filled  with  petroleum  ether  (about  50  to  75 
cc.);  about  2  gms.  of  the  material  to  be  extracted  h  accurately 
weighed  and  placed  in  the  extraction  tube  or  capsule,  after  which 
the  several  parts  of  the  apparatus  are  connected  and  the  flask  is 
heated  on  a  water-bath  until  all  the  oil  or  grease  has  been  ex- 
tracted and  dissolved  by  the  petroleum  ether.  According  to  the 
form  of  apparatus  employed,  this  may  require  from  twenty 
minutes  to  one  hour.  The  flask  is  then  removed  and  the  solvent 
is  distilled  off.  The  residual  grease  in  the  flask  is  then  dried 
for  one-half  hour  on  the  water-bath  and  after  cooling  weighed. 
The  increase  in  the  weight  of  the  flask  represents  the  amount  of 
grease. 

7.  Estimation  of  Finishing  Materials  on  Fabrics. — Cotton 
fabrics  are  quite  generally  sized  or  otherwise  finished  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  the  cloth  a  better  handle  or  a  greater  weight. 
For  this  purpose  a  wide  variety  of  substances  may  be  used,  but 
starch  is  nearly  always  the  basis  of  the  sizing.  Soaps,  fats, 
gelatin,  vegetable  mucilages,  resin,  and  china  clay  are  also  of 
common  occurrence.  In  some  cases  hygroscopic  salts,  such  as 
calcium  chloride,  magnesium  chloride,  or  zinc  chloride  are  used 
to  obtain  certain  effects  or  to  increase  the  weight  of  the 


408 


THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES. 


goods.*  Woolen  goods  are  sometimes  sized  or  weighted  in  a  similar 
manner,  both  for  purposes  of  producing  certain  finishes  and  of 
fraudulently  increasing  the  weight  of  the  fabric. 

According  to  Hoyer,f  cotton  cloth  in  the  gray  or  unbleached 
state  should  consist  approximately  of  83  per  cent,  fibre,  7  per 
cent,  moisture,  8.5  per  cent,  of  starch  and  fatty  matters  (used  for 
softening  the  yarn  and  sizing  the  warp),  and  1.5  per  cent,  of  ash. 
After  boiling-out  and  bleaching,  however,  only  78  per  cent,  of 
fibre  is  left,  so  that  by  the  addition  of  dressing  the  finished  cloth 
consists  of  78  per  cent,  fibre,  7  per  cent,  moisture,  7  per  cent, 
starch,  and  7.5  per  cent,  mineral  matter.  If  the  amount  of  fibre 
falls  below  78  per  cent,  in  bleached  calico  or  much  below  83  per 
cent,  in  gray  calico,  it  may  be  supposed  that  the  cloth  is  loaded. 

Linen  fabrics  should  contain  but  a  small  amount  of  finishing 
or  dressing  materials.  Usually  a  small  quantity  of  starch  is 
required  for  the  purpose  of  sizing  the  warps,  but  no  mineral 
matter  should  be  present  beyond  that  to  be  found  in  the  natural 
fibre  itself.  Linen  cloth  should  not  lose  more  than  5  per  cent, 
when  boiled  in  water. 

8.  Testing  the  Water-proof  Quality  of  Fabrics. — A  large 
variety  of  fabrics  are  now  finished  so  as  to  be  more  or  less  water- 
proof or,  more  strictly  speaking,  water-resistant.  Fabrics  of 
cotton,  wool,  silk,  or  of  mixed  fibres  may  be  given  this  property. 
It  is  not  the  purpose  at  this  point  to  enter  into  the  methods  by 

*  Thompson,  Si.ing  oj  Cotton  Goods,  p.  150,  gives  the  following  typical  analyses 
of  cotton  fabrics : 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

v. 

VI. 

Material: 
Fibre  

Normal  moisture.  .  .  . 

Weight  of  cloth  
Dressing: 
Water  
Dressing  and  fat  
Mineral  matter  

Weight  of  Dressing  .  . 

Per  Cent. 

47.29 
4.11 

PetCent. 

53-°2 
4.61 

Per  Cent. 

60.75 
5.28 

Per  Cent. 

70.84 
6.16 

Per  Cent. 

80.51 
7.02 

PerCent. 

81.78 
7-II 

51.40 

6.01 
12.77 
29.82 

57-63 

5.02 
I3-36 
23-99 

66.03 

4-65 
J3-33 
15-99 

77.00 

3-°7 
12.43 
7-5° 

87-53 

2.01 
8.30 
2.16 

88.89 

2.89 

3-33 
4.89 

48.60 

42.37 

33-97 

23.00 

12.47 

it.  ii 

t  Dammer's  Lexikon  der  Verfalschungen. 


QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS   OF   THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.        4°9 

which  water-proofing  is  carried  out,  but  simply  to  give  the 
methods  employed  for  testing  such  fabrics. 

In  Germany  the  following  test  is  prescribed  for  sail-cloth:  A 
sample  of  the  cloth  10  inches  square  is  folded  like  a  filter-paper 
and  placed  in  a  suitable  glass  funnel  where  300  cc.  of  water  are 
poured  upon  it  and  it  is  left  for  twenty- four  hours.  At  the  end 
of  this  time  only  a  few  equally  distributed  drops  of  water  should 
be  discovered  on  the  under  surface  of  the  cloth,  and  the  fabric 
should  not  be  wet  through. 

Gawalowski  describes  an  apparatus  for  determining  the 
water-proof  qualities  of  a  fabric  as  follows:  The  sample  of  the 
cloth  is  attached  to  the  open  end  of  a  graduated  tube  (a  burette 
will  serve  the  purpose,  using  the  large  opening  for  the  cloth), which 
is  then  filled  with  a  column  of  water  12  inches  in  height.  At 
the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  an  observation  is  made  as  to  how 
much  water  has  passed  through  the  cloth. 


APPENDIX  I. 

MICROSCOPIC   ANALYSIS   OF   FABRICS. 

HOHNEL  describes  the  following  method  employed  for  a  micro- 
scopic examination  of  textile  fabrics,  where  the  object  is  to  deter- 
mine not  only  qualitatively  the  character  of  fibres  composing 
them,  but  also  their  quantitative  amounts.  With  regard  to  the 
preliminary  qualitative  examination,  there  are  generally  only  a  few 
fibres  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  there  seldom  occur  in  the 
same  fabric  more  than  one  to  four  different  kinds  of  fibres.  As 
a  rule,  the  only  fibres  which  will  be  found  are  cotton,  linen,  hemp, 
jute,  ramie,  sheep's  wool,  goat-hair,  cow-hair,  angora,  alpaca, 
cashmere,  llama,  silk,  and  tussah  silk.  In  woolen  material  there 
are  also  cosmos  and  shoddy  to  be  considered. 

To  undertake  the  examination,  cut  off  a  sample  of  the  mate- 
rial 2  to  3  sq.  cm.  in  size,  and  separate  this  into  its  warp-  and  fill- 
ing-threads. The  sample  must  be  of  sufficient  size  to  include 
all  of  the  different  kinds  of  yarns  employed  in  the  weave.  Con- 
sequently, in  the  case  of  large  patterns;  it  has  to  be  rather  large. 
The  warp-  and  filling-threads  are  laid  next  to  each  other,  and  one 
of  each  kind  is  selected  to  serve  for  further  examination.  In  the 
simplest  case  there  is  only  one  kind  of  warp-thread  and  one  kind 
of  filling  present,  which  necessitates,  therefore,  the  examination 
of  only  two  different  yarns.  In  complicated  cases  there  may  be 
as  many  as  ten,  or  even  more,  different  yarns  to  analyze.  In 
woolen  fabrics  there  will  frequently  be  found  yarns  which  are 
composed  of  two  or  three  different  threads  twisted  together; 
these  must  be  untwisted  and  each  separate  yarn  examined  by 
itself.  In  order  to  attain  satisfactory  results,  the  operator  must 

4n 


412  APPENDIX  1 

be  sufficiently  skilled  in  the  microscopy  of  the  fibres  to  be  able  to 
recognize  with  certainty,  under  a  low  magnification,  the  different 
fibres  liable  to  be  found.  By  a  low  magnification  is  meant  one 
of  fifty  to  sixty  times.  A  much  higher  power  cannot  be  used  in 
the  examination  of  fabrics,  for  hundreds  or  even  thousands  of 
fibres  have  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  From  ten  to  twenty 
fibres,  or  perhaps  more,  should  be  obtained  in  the  field  at  the 
same  time,  and  it  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  promptly  recognize 
the  different  ones.  With  a  higher  magnification,  it  is  true,  the 
single  fibres  can  be  better  recognized,  but  the  general  view  is 
then  lost,  and  there  is  danger  in  overlooking  whole  bundles  of 
fibres.  If  the  observer  finds  a  fibre  which  cannot  be  recognized 
with  sufficient  accuracy  by  means  of  the  low  power,  it  is  a  simple 
matter  to  so  change  the  objective  as  to  increase  the  magnification 
to  albw  of  the  necessary  observations  to  be  made,  and  then  to 
proceed  again  with  the  examination  under  the  lower  power. 

Dark-colored  material  often  consists  for  the  most  part  of 
threads  which,  on  microscopic  examination,  appear  quite  opaque, 
hence  dark  and  structureless.  Therefore  it  will  frequently  be 
necessary  to  remove  the  dyestuff  j  at  least  in  part,  which  is  usually 
done  by  boiling  in  acetic  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  dilute  caustic 
alkali,  potassium  carbonate,  etc.,  until  sufficiently  light  in  appear- 
ance. 

In  the  case  of  very  accurate  examinations,  each  different  kind 
of  thread  must  be  examined  separately,  and  the  number  of  fibres 
composing  it,  together  with  their  kind  and  color,  must  be  noted, 
In  order  to  show  the  detail  and  scope  of  such  an  examination,  the 
following  example  is  given:  On  unravelling  a  sample  four  differ- 
ent warp- threads  and  one  filling-thread  were  obtained  One  of 
the  warp-threads  was  composed  of  two  yarns  twisted  together 
one  of  which  was  black  (Kia)  and  the  other  white  (K^b) 
Two  warp-threads  were  dark  blue  (K2  and  K3)  and  the  fourth 
was  a  gray  mix  (K4).;  the  filling-thread  (£)  was  blue.  On  exam- 
ination the  following  results  were  obtained  : 

Kia  showed  85  shoddy  fibres  (mostly  black,  some  yellow  and 
red  and  even  isolated  green  fibres  of  wool,  and  13  cotton  fibres). 

K]b  showed  31  pure  white  wool  fibres 


MICROSCOPIC  ANALYSIS  OF  FABRICS.  413 

K2  and  K3,  respectively,  showed  46  and  53  pure  blue  wool 
fibres. 

K±  showed  60  shoddy  fibres,  of  which  32  were  mostly  gray  or 
black  wool  fibres,  and  28  were  gray  cotton  fibres. 

E  showed  60  blue  wool  fibres. 

Therefore  in  this  sample,  including  4  wa  p-  and  4  filling-threads, 
there  would  be  85+31+46  +  53+60=275  single- warp  fibres; 
and  60X4  =  240  filling  fibres;  or  515  single  fibres  altogether. 
Of  these  41  were  cotton,  which  were  found  in  the  shoddy,  the 
latter  comprising  145  fibres  in  all.  Hence  in  a  sample  of  this  piece 
of  goods  containing  equal  lengths  of  warp  and  weft,  there  are 
41  cotton  fibres,  104  shoddy  wool  fibres,  and  370  pure  wool 
fibres,  from  which  the  respective  percentages  would  be: 

Per  Cent. 

Cotton 8.0 

Shoddy  wool 20. 2 

Pure  wool 71.8 


This,  of  course,  only  gives  the  relative  percentages  of  the 
number  of  fibres;  if  it  is  desired  to  reach  an  approximate  idea  of 
the  proportions  by  weight,  then  micrometric  measurements  must 
be  made  of  the  wool  and  cotton  fibres  occurring  in  the  sample. 
In  consideration  of  the  fact  that  wool  possesses  about  twice  the 
cross-section  of  cotton,  it  becomes  a  rather  easy  matter  to  calcu- 
late the  ratio  between  the  two,  by  means  of  which  the  percentage 
by  weight  can  be  readily  obtained,  provided  that  the  specific 
gravity  of  wool  is  taken  to  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  cotton, 
which  is  approximately  true. 


APPENDIX  II. 

MACHINE   FOR   DETERMINING   STRENGTH   OF 
FIBRES. 

THERE  have  been  a  number  of  machines  devised  for  the  pur- 
pose of  determining  the  tensile  strength  and  elasticity  of  fabrics 
and  yarns,  and  a  few  instruments  have  also  been  adapted  for 
the  testing  of  single  fibres.  As  the  individual  fibre,  however,  is 
a  very  slender  and  delicate  object,  especially  in  the  case  of  cer- 
tain vegetable  fibres,  the  determination  of  its  physical  factors  is 
an  operation  which  requires  a  delicately  adjusted  apparatus.  In 
machines  which  require  the  taking  on  or  off  of  weights,  the  jar  is 
usually  sufficient  to  break  the  fibre  before  its  true  breaking  strain 
is  reached.  The  same  criticism  is  also  true  for  machines  employ- 
ing water  as  a  weight.  A  machine  devised  for  the  use  of  the 
Philadelphia  Textile  School  has  proved  very  satisfactory  for 
determining  the  tensile  strength  and  elasticity  of  almost  any 
fibre,  from  very  fine  and  delicate  filaments  to  coarse  and  strong 
hairs.  A  diagrammatic  drawing  of  this  machine  is  given  in  Fig. 
127.  The  fibre  to  be  tested  is  clamped  between  the  jaws  at  (/), 
the  pointer  attached  to  the  end  of  the  beam  above  the  upper  j«w 
being  brought  to  the  zero-mark  on  the  scale  (5),  while  the  lower 
jaw  is  raised  or  lowered  in  its  stand  until  the  desired  distance 
between  the  jaws  is  obtained.  To  obtain  comparable  results  this 
distance  should  always  be  the  same;  and  10  cm.,  in  the  case  of 
long  fibres,  or  2  cm.  for  short  fibres,  have  proved  to  be  good 
lengths  of  fibre  to  test.  The  sliding-bar  (R)  is  moved  forward  by 
turning  the  rod  (T),  which  moves  the  rack  and  pinion  at  (P), 
until  the  graduation  on  the  wheel  (G)  is  at  zero  to  the  indicator. 
Under  these  conditions  there  is  no  strain  on  the  fibre.  A  stretch- 

414 


MACHINE  FOR  DETERMINING  STRENGTH  OF  FIBRES.        415 

ing-force  is  then  placed  on  the  fibre  by  moving  the  bar  (/?)  back- 
ward by  turning  the  rod  (!T);  the  motion  of  this  bar  is  made 
uniform  and  gradual  until  the  fibre  finally  breaks  under  the  strain 
thus  placed  upon  it.  The  graduation  on  the  wheel  (G)  will 
then  indicate  in  decigrams  the  breaking  strain  of  the  fibre  being 
tested.  The  elasticity  is  obtained  by  watching  carefully  the 
pointer  moving  up  the  scale  of  millimetres  at  (5)  until  the  rupture 


FIG.  127. — Fibre-testing  Machine. 

/,  jaws  with  screw-clamps  for  holding  the  fibre;  the  lower  jaw  may  be  raised  or 
lowered;  R,  sliding-rod  working  on  a  rack  and  pinion;  this  takes  the  place 
of  weights;  G,  wheel  graduated  on  its  face  in  decigrams,  moving  on  the 
same  axis  as  the  pinion  for  sliding  the  weight;  T,  thumb-screw  for  turning 
the  small  shaft  working  the  pinion  at  P;  W,  counterbalancing  weight  for 
regulating  the  zero-point  of  the  machine;  S,  scale  for  reading  the  stretch  of 
the  fibre.  (Drawing  by  author.) 

of  the  fibre  takes  place;  the  distance  this  pointer  moves  represents 
the  actual  stretch  of  the  fibre,  and  if  the  length  of  fibre  taken 
between  the  jaws  is  10  cm.,  this  figure  will  represent  directly  the 
percentage  of  elasticity.  If  the  length  of  fibre  taken  is  only  2  cm., 
to  obtain  the  percentage  of  elasticity  it  is  nece  sary  to  multiply 
the  amount  of  stretch  in  millimeters  by  five;  and  for  other  lengths 
of  fibre  similar  proportions  will  hold.  The  weight  (W)  at  the 
rear  end  of  the  beam  can  be  moved  backward  or  forward,  and 
is  for  the  purpose  of  adjusting  the  balance  so  that  there  is  no 
strain  at  (J)  when  the  indicator  on  (G)  marks  zero.  The  wheel 
(G)  is  graduated  in  decigrams,  and  this  marks  the  sensibility  of 


41 6  APPENDIX  II. 

the  machine;  the  total  graduations  on  (G)  running  from  zero  to 
400.  When  fibres  are  tested  having  a  greater  tensile  strength 
than  400  decigrams  a  fixed  additional  weight  of  10,  25,  50,  etc., 
grams  may  be  hung  from  (W),  and  this  must  be  added  to  the 
reading  on  the  wheel  when  the  fibre  breaks.  If  the  elasticity  of 
the  fibre  is  so  great  as  to  carry  the  pointer  beyond  the  limits  of 
the  scale  at  (5),  a  shorter  length  of  fibre  must  be  tested.  A  fair 
average  of  breaking  strain  and  elasticity  may  be  obtained  for 
any  quality  of  fibre  by  testing  about  10  separate  fibres  and  taking 
a  mean  of  the  total  tests.  If  the  quality  of  the  fibres,  however, 
in  a  sample  does  not  run  very  uniform,  it  is  best  to  increase  the 
number  of  tests  to  25  or  even  50  in  order  that  a  satisfactory 
average  may  be  obtained. 

This  machine  is  capable  of  being  used  with  all  classes  of  fibres, 
and  its  results  are  very  satisfactory,  as  has  been  proved  by  several 
years'  use  at  the  Philadelphia  Textile  School. 


APPENDIX  III. 

COMMERCIAL  VARIETIES   OF   AMERICAN  COTTON. 

THE  following  material  relative  to  the  different  varieties  of 
American  cotton  has  been  based  on  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Dept. 
of  Agriculture  on  this  subject.  The  following  varieties  and 
their  characteristics  have  been  recorded: 

Acme  (Allen  Acme). — From  Mississippi;  evidently  a  mixture 
of  some  long-stapled  variety  and  sea-island;  it  is  not  a  hybrid,  and 
does  not  seem  to  have  any  special  value. 

Allen  (Allen  Silk,  Allen  Long  Staple,  Talbot).— From  Missis- 
sippi; plant  vigorous,  pyramidal,  long-limbed;  bolls  large, 
opening  very  widely,  and  sometimes  allowing  the  seed  cotton  to 
drop;  maturing  late;  lint  28  to  30  per  cent.,  staple  30  to  35 
mm.,  fine  and  silky. 

Aired. — History  unknown;  evidently  of  the  Rio  Grande 
type;  reported  only  once  from  Mississippi. 

Alvarado. — History  unknown;  evidently  Peterkin;  reported 
once  from  Georgia. 

Audrey  Peterkin.     (See  Peterkin.) 

Bahama.     (See  Texas  Storm  Proof.) 

Bailey. — Originated  in  North  Carolina;  plant  of  medium 
size,  early  and  prolific  for  a  long-stapled  va:iety;  lint  28  to  30 
per  cent.,  staple  28  to  y.  mm.  An  excellent  long-stapled  variety 
for  uplands. 

Banana  (Cluster,  Hogan,  Prout). — This  variety  is  now  obso- 
lete. 

Bancroft  Herlong.     (See  Herlong.) 

Bancroft  Prolific  Herlong.     (Sec  Herlong.) 

417 


41 8  APPENDIX  III. 

Bancroft  Prolific  Long  Staple. — Origin  unknown;  yield 
much  below  the  average. 

Barnes. — One  of  the  older  varieties;  plant  vigorous,  short- 
limbed  and  inclining  to  cluster,  similar  to  Herlong  in  habit; 
bolls  above  medium  size,  maturing  late. 

Barnett. — From  Alabama;  origin  unknown;  plant  tall  and 
slender,  limbs  short;  bolls  medium  size,  rounded,  not  maturing 
early;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  23  to  25  mm. 

Bates  Big  Boll. — Originated  in  South  Carolina,  developed 
from  the  Rio  Grande  type;  plant  vigorous  and  very  symmetrical; 
well-branched;  bolls  rather  large,  not  maturing  early;  lint  33 
to  35  per  cent.,  staple  24  to  27  mm. 

Bates  Favorite. — Similar  in  origin  to  above;  plant  very 
vigorous,  branching  widely;  bolls  medium  size,  maturing  late; 
lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  24  to  27  mm. 

Belle  Creole. — The  immediate  successor  to  the  Jethrox; 
stalk  large,  tall,  and  productive;  boll  large  and  long;  seed  com- 
monly flat  on  one  side  with  an  indentation;  lint  abundant,  long, 
firm,  silky,  soft,  lustrous;  a  very  oily  cotton. 

Ben  Smith  (Ben  Smith  Choice,  Bush,  Smith  Standard). — 
From  Louisiana;  plant  strong,  widely  pyramidal;  bolls  medium 
size,  usually  two  at  each  joint;  not  maturing  early;  lint  32  to  33 
per  cent.,  staple  23  to  26  mm.  Probably  descended  from  Purple 
Stalk  or  Red  Leaf. 

Big  Boll. — From  California;  history  unknown;  supposed 
to  be  of  Texas  origin;  plant  medium  size,  limbs  rather  long; 
bolls  large,  oblong,  maturing  late;  lint  34  to  35  per  cent.,  staple 
25  to  28  mm. 

Black  Seed. — This  name  is  usually  applied  both  to  sea-island 
varieties  and  to  upland  varieties  having  a  smooth  seed. 

Bob,  Bob  Silk,  Bob  White.    (See  Ozier.) 

Bolivar  County. — A  Louisiana  variety  of  the  Storm  Proof 
type;  maturing  early,  with  29  to  30  per  cent,  of  lint. 

Borden  Prolific. — Occurs  in  South  Carolina,  but  no  description 
available. 

Boyd  Prolific. — One  of  the  oldest  improved  varieties;  plant 
upright,  slender,  moderately  vigorous,  short-limbed;  bolls  small, 


COMMERCIAL   VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN  COTTON.         419 

round,  in  clusters,  medium  in  time  of  ripening;  lint  30  to  32  per 
cent.,  staple  20  to  24  mm. 

Brady. — Occurs  in  North  Carolina,  but  no  description  avail- 
able. 

Bragg  Long  Staple, — This  appears  to  be  a  true  hybrid  between 
G.  herbaceum  and  G.  barbadense;  plant  very  vigorous,  well- 
branched;  bolls  oblong,  large,  maturing  late;  lint  30  per  cent., 
staple  very  variable,  mostly  35  mm.,  some  75  mm. 

Brannon  (Little  Brannon). — One  of  the  older  varieties,  orig- 
inating in  Texas;  plant  medium  growth,  well-branched;  limbs 
short- jointed;  bolls  small,  medium  in  time  of  ripening;  lint 
32  to  35  per  cent.,  staple  18  to  22  mm.  Belongs  to  the  Rio  Grande 
type. 

Brazier  Peterkin.     (See  Peterkin.) 

Brooks  Improved.  —  A  Louisiana  variety;  maturing  early; 
lint  31  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  short. 

Brown. — From  Mississippi;  maturing  early;  staple  short. 

Bush.     (See  Ben  Smith.) 

Carolina  Pride.     (See  Early  Carolina.) 

Catacaos.     (See  Peruvian.) 

Catawba. — From  South  Carolina;  maturing  late;  lint  35  to 
36  per  cent.,  staple  23  to  25  mm. 

Chambers. — From  South  Carolina;  belongs  to  Herlong  type; 
lint  32  per  cent.,  staple  22  to  25  mm. 

Champion  Cluster. — Plant  very  vigorous  with  long  limbs; 
bolls  large,  oblong,  maturing  late;  lint  30  to  31  per  cent.,  staple 
25  to  28  mm. 

Cherry  Cluster  (Cherry). — From  South  Carolina;  plant  of 
medium  growth,  cone-shaped;  limbs  of  medium  length;  bolls 
small,  round,  clustered,  maturing  early;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent., 
staple  1 8  to  22  mm. 

Cherry  Long  Staple  Prolific. — Closely  allied  to  the  above. 

Cluster.     (See  Banana.) 

Cobweb  (Spider  Web). — From  Mississippi;  claimed  to  be 
a  hybrid  between  Peeler  and  an  Egyptian  variety;  plant  ve:y 
vigorous,  long-limbed;  bolls  large,  somewhat  pointed,  maturing 


420  APPENDIX  III. 

late;   lint  28  to  29  per  cent.,  staple  35  to  40  mm.,  very  fine  and 
silky. 

Cochran     (Cochran    Extra    Prolific,    Cochran    Short- imbed 
Prolific). — From  Georgia;  plant  moderate  grower,  slender,  short 
limbed;  bolls  medium  size,  round;  lint  32  to  33  per  cent.,  staple 
35  to  40  mm. 

Colthorp  Eureka.     (See  Eureka.) 

Colthorp  Pride. — From  Louisiana;  plant  vigorous,  upright, 
pyramidal;  bolls  oval,  large,  maturing  late;  lint 28  to  30 per  cent., 
staple  28  to  32  mm.;  seed  small  and  many  of  them  black. 

Cook. — From  Mississippi;  plant  very  vigorous  and  prolific; 
limbs  irregular,  not  long;  bolls  large  and  long,  maturing  late; 
int  26  to  28  per  cent.,  staple  35  to  40  mm.  One  of  the  best 
varieties  for  low  rich  ground. 

Cox  Royal  Arch  Silk. — From  Georgia,  similar  to  Ozier  Silk. 

Crawford  Peerless  (Crawford  Premium). — From  South  Caro- 
lina; practically  identical  with  Peerless,  except  that  the  bolls  are 
usually  clustered. 

Crossland.     (See  Peterkin.) 

Dalkeith  Eureka.     (See  Eureka.) 

Dean. — Local,  variety  of  South  Carolina. 

Bearing  (Bearing  Prolific,  Bearing  Small  Seed) . — Very  similar 
to  Herlong;  it  is  claimed  that  45  per  cent,  of  lint  has  been 
obtained  from  this. 

Diamond. — Beveloped  from  the  Rio  Grande  type. 

Dickson  (Bixon,  Bickson  Cluster,  Bickson  Improved,  Simp- 
son).— Plant  vigorous,  well  branched,  pyramidal;  limbs  short; 
bolls  medium  to  large;  round,  clustered,  maturing  rather  early; 
lint  31  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  23  to  26  mm.  One  of  the  most 
popular  cluster  varieties. 

Drake  Cluster. — Beveloped  from  Peerless,  which  it  resembles 
in  every  way,  except  that  it  matures  somewhat  earlier  and  the 
bolls  are  more  clustered;  lint  31  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  22  to  25 
mm.  One  of  the  most  popular  varieties  for  uplands. 

Drought  Proof.     (See  Texas  Storm  Proof.) 

Duncan  (Buncan  Mammoth). — From  Georgia;  a  late  ripen- 
ing, large  boll,  long- staple  variety,  similar  to  Mammoth  Prolific. 


COMMERCIAL    VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN   COTTON.         421 

Early  Carolina  (Extra  Early  Carolina,  Carolina  Pride,  South 
Carolina  Pride). — An  early  ripening  variety  developed  from  the 
Dickson  and  very  similar  to  that  form. 

East  (East  Improved  Georgia). — A  long- staple  variety  similar 
to  Allen,  but  maturing  earlier  and  having  a  little  shorter  staple; 
lint  31  to  32  per  cent. 

Ellsworth. — From  North  Carolina;  plant  usually  with  long 
spreading  limbs;  bolls  large,  oblong,  maturing  late;  lint  30  to  33 
per  cent.,  staple  21  to  24  mm. 

Ethridge.— From  Louisiana;  plant  of  fair  size;  limbs  long 
and  spreading;  maturing  late;  staple  fine  and  silky,  28  to  30  mm. ; 
seed  black. 

Eureka  (Colthorp  Eureka,  Dalkeith  Eureka,  Humphrey 
Eureka). — Plant  large  and  prolific;  limbs  of  medium  length; 
bolls  rather  large,  oblong,  not  maturing  early,  holding  the  seed 
well  in  wet  weather;  lint  28  to  30  per  cent.,  staple  35  to  40  mm., 
very  fine,  strong,  and  silky;  seed  quite  small  and  sometimes 
black.  One  of  the  most  popular  long- staple  varieties. 

Excelsier. — Developed  from  New  Era;  similar  to  Peter  kin, 
though  with  bolls  a  trifle  larger;  lint  33  to  35  per  cent.,  staple 
26  to  30  mm. 

Farrar  Forked  Leaf.     (See  Okra.) 

Farrell  Prolific. — Plant  medium  size,  with  very  long  and 
straggling  limbs;  very  prolific;  bolls  large,  oblong;  lint  28  to  30 
per  cent.,  staple  30  to  35  mm.,  similar  to  Mammoth  Prolific. 

Garber. — Local  Alabama  variety  of  the  Rio  Grande  type. 

Georgia  Prolific  (Georgia  Upland). — These  are  names  ap- 
plied to  a  number  of  upland  short-staple  varieties  of  the  Peterkin 
and  Herlong  types. 

Gold  Dust.     (See  King.) 

Grayson  Early  Prolific. — Plant  medium  in  size;  limbs  short,  not 
spreading  widely;  very  prolific;  bolls  medium  in  size,  somewhat 
clustered,  ripening  early;  lint  34  to 36 per  cent.,  staple  22  to  25  mm. 

Griffin. — Plant  vigorous  with  pale-green  leaf,  prolific;  bolls 
large,  medium  in  time  of  maturing;  lint  28  to  29  per  cent.,  stalpe 
very  fine  and  silky,  occasionally  fibres  70  to  75  mm.  The  longest 
nd  finest  staple  found. 


42.'  APPENDIX  III. 

Gunn. — A  Mississippi  local  variety  of  the  Rio  Grande  type. 

Hawkins  (Hawkins  Extra  Prolific). — Plant  very  vigorous, 
well- branched,  pyramidal;  prolific;  bolls  medium  in  size,  round- 
ish, early  or  medium  in  time  of  maturing;  lint  32  to  34  per  cent., 
staple  1 8  to  22  mm. 

Hays  China. — Very  similar  to  the  Allen. 

Herlong  (Bancroft  Herlong,  Jones  Herlong,  etc.) — Plant 
medium  in  size,  well- branched,  pyramidal,  very  prolific;  bolls 
medium  in  size,  round,  maturing  rather  late;  lint  30  to  32  per 
cent.,  staple  20  to  25  mm.  A  semi-cluster  variety  very  popular 
in  Georgia  and  Alabama. 

Hightower. — An  Alabama  local  variety,  strong  growing, 
bolls  very  large,  and  staple  of  medium  length. 

Hilliard. — Of  the  Rio  Grande  type,  and  not  differing  essen- 
tially from  Peterkin. 

Hogan.     (See  Banana.) 

Hollingshead. — One  of  the  oldest  varieties  on  record.  Sup- 
posed to  be  of  Mexican  origin,  but  is  now  apparently  obsolete. 

Howell.  —  From  Louisiana;  very  similar  to  Peterkin,  but 
maturing  earlier. 

Humphrey  Eureka.     (See  Eureka.) 

Hunnicutt  (Hunnicutt  Choice). — Plant  large  and  well- branched, 
branches  spreading,  prolific;  bolls  of  medium  size,  roundish, 
maturing  early;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  22  to  25  mm. 

Improved  Long  Staple.     (See  Jones  Long  Staple.) 

Improved  Prolific. — A  local  variety  from  North  Carolina,- 
very  similar  to  Herlong. 

J.  C.  Cook. — Descendant  of  old  Purple  Stalk  type,  apparently 
identical  with  Ben  Smith. 

Jenkins  (Jenkins  Poor  Man's  Friend). — Plant  strong,  pyram- 
idal, prolific;  bolls  medium  in  size,  oval,  maturing  early;  lint 
34  to  36  per  cent.,  staple  22  to  25  mm.  One  of  the  best  of  the 
Rio  Grande  type. 

Jethro  (McBiide  Silk). — This  is  the  parent  stock  of  Jones 
Long  Staple,  Six  Oaks,  and  a  number  of  others,  but  does  not 
now  seem  to  be  in  cultivation. 

Jones  Herlong.     (See  Herlong.) 


COMMERCIAL    VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN   COTTON.          423 

Jones  Improved  (Jones  Improved  Prolific).— Plant  medium 
size,  limbs  short  and  spreading,  not  very  prolific;  bolls  large, 
roundish,  maturing  late;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  20  to  24 
mm. 

Jones  Long  Staple  (Improved  Long  Staple,  Richardson 
Improved). — Plant  large,  limbs  long  and  spreading;  prolific; 
bolls  large,  oval,  pointed,  maturing  medium  or  late;  lint  29  to 
30  per  cent.,  staple  30  to  34  mm.  A  descendant  of  the  Jethro, 
and  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  long-staple  varieties  for  the 
middle  and  southern  parts  of  the  cotton  belt. 

Jones  No.  i. — A  local  Alabama  variety  of  the  Rio  Grande 
type;  lint  33  to  34  percent.,  staple  18  to  22  mm. 

Jowers  (Jowers  Improved). — Similar  to  the  Peterkin  and 
probably  the  same. 

Jumbo. — Similar  to  the  Hawkins,  but  more  prolific. 

Kelly.     (See  Marston.) 

Kieth. — From  Alabama;  plant  tall,  py  amidal;  limbs  short- 
jointed,  prolific;  bolls  medium  size,  rounded,  not  clustered, 
maturing  early;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  24  to  27  mm. 

King  (Gold  Dust,  King  Improved,  Tennessee  Gold  Dust).— 
Plant  medium  size,  pyramidal,  well-branched,  very  prolific; 
bolls  small,  rounded,  maturing  early;  lint  32  to  34  per  cent., 
staple  25  to  28  mm.  One  of  the  most  desirable  varieties. 

Lewis  Prolific.     (See  Sugar  Loaf.) 

Little  Brannon.     (See  Brannon.) 

Louisiana. — This  name  is  applied  to  a  number  of  upland 
short-staple  varieties. 

Magruder  Marvel. — Plant  pyramidal,  limbs  abundant  and 
short-jointed;  bolls  small,  round,  and  somewhat  clustered, 
maturing  early;  lint  31  to  33  per  cent.,  staple  25  to  30  mm. 

Magruder  XL. — Early  and  prolific;  lint  32  to  34  per  cent., 
staple  25  to  30  mm. 

Mallius  Prolific. — A  local  Louisiana  variety. 

Mammoth  Cluster. — From  Georgia  and  one  of  the  old  vari- 
eties, similar  to  Champion  Cluster. 

Mammoth  Prolific. — Plant  very  strong,  well- branched,  not 
very  prolific;  bolls  very  large,  oblong,  maturing  very  late;  lint 


424  APPENDIX  III. 

30  to  32   per  cent.,  staple    26    to    31    mm.      Very    similar  to 
Duncan. 

Marston  (Kelly) — Plant  medium  growth,  limbs  short,  pro- 
lific; bolls  fair  size,  round,  maturing  late;  lint  30  to  31  per  cent., 
staple  26  to  30  mm. 

Martin  Prolific. — From  Louisiana;  apparently  the  same  as 
above. 

Mastodon. — From  Mississippi;  seems  to  have  disappeared. 

Matthews. — Plant  very  vigorous,  pyramidal,  with  limbs  from 
near  the  ground;  limbs  short- jointed,  very  prolific;  bolls  large, 
ovate,  pointed,  maturing  early;  lint  29  to  30  per  cent.,  staple 
35  to  40  mm.  Gives  a  remarkably  good  yield  for  a  long-staple 
variety. 

Mattis. — Plant  vigorous,  limbs  long,  short- jointed,  prolific; 
bolls  clustered,  medium  in  size,  maturing  rather  late;  lint  30  to 
32  per  cent.,  staple  25  to  30  mm. 

Maxey  (S.  B.  Maxey,  Meyers,  Meyers  Texas). — Plant  medium 
size,  well  branched,  prolific;  bolls  large,  roundish;  lint  31  to 
32  per  cent.,  staple  30  to  35  mm. 

McAllister  Peerless.     (See  Peerless.) 

McBride.     (See  Jethro.) 

McCall. — Once  popular  in  South  Carolina,  but  now  obsolete; 
similar  to  Truitt. 

Mclver. — A  local  variety  of  South  Carolina,  similar  to  above. 

Mexican. — One  of  the  oldest  known  varieties;  the  larger 
proportion  of  our  short  and  medium  stapled  varieties  have  been 
developed  from  this. 

Mexican  Burr. — A  variety  of  the  above,  with  bolls  in  clusters 
and  the  original  source  of  many  of  the  present  cluster  varieties. 

Meyers.     (See  Maxey.) 

Minter  (Minter  P.olific). — Plants  large,  branched  low  and 
widely,  prolific;  bolls  medium  in  size,  round  or  oval,  maturing 
late;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  22  to  25  mm.,  similar  to 
Her  long. 

Moina. — Remarkable  for  the  number  of  its  limbs;  fibre  long 
and  fine,  said  to  surpass  Peeler;  bolls  abundant,  but  as  it  is 
difficult  to  pick  and  gin  is  not  now  cultivated  much. 


COMMERCIAL    VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN  COTTON.          425 

Money  Bush. — One  of  the  old  varieties  in  Mississippi ;  probably 
same  as  Banana. 

Moon. — Plant  strong,  limbs  long  and  spreading;  bolls  large, 
oval,  medium  maturing;  lint  31  to  33  per  cent.,  staple  30  to  35 
mm.,  strong  and  silky. 

Multibolus. — Sometimes  call:;!  3v.gar  Loaf;  a  cluster  variety 
which  has  now  disappeared. 

Multiflora. — An  early  Alabama  variety  similar  to  the  Banana, 
but  with  large  clusters  of  bolls  and  lighter  colored  seeds. 

Oats. — Plant  vigorous,  sugar-loaf  in  shape,  very  prolific,  ma- 
turing early;  lint  32  to  34  per  cent.,  staple  20  to  25  mm. 

Okra  (Okra  Leaf,  Farrar  Forked  Leaf).— One  of  the  older 
varieties;  plant  of  medium  growth,  limbs  short  and  upright; 
leaves  with  very  narrow  lobes;  bolls  clustered,  :ound,  small, 
maturing  early;  lint  32  to  34  per  cent.,  staple  24  to  26  mm. 

Ozier  (Ozier  Silk,  Bob,  Bob  Silk,  Bob  White,  Tennessee 
Silk). — Plants  medium  size,  pyramidal,  limbs  rather  short, 
moderately  prolific;  bolls  medium  in  size,  oval,  ripening  early; 
lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  25  to  28  mm. 

Pearce. — An  early  maturing  variety,  with  32  to  33  per  cent, 
of  lint. 

Peeler. — Plant  very  large  and  vigorous,  branching  widely; 
bolls  large,  maturing  late;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  very 
strong  and  silky,  25  to  28  mm.  One  of  the  most  widely  cultivated 
varieties. 

Peerless  (Crawford  Premium,  Crawford  Peerless,  McAllister 
Peerless,  Sutton  Peerless,  The  Premium). — Plant  medium,  well- 
branched,  pyramidal;  bolls  small  or  medium  in  size,  round, 
sometimes  clustered,  maturing  early;  lint  32  to  33  per  cent., 
staple  23  to  27  mm.  One  of  the  best  of  the  upland  varieties. 

Peruvian  (Catacaos). — A  South  American  variety  of  G. 
arbor eum,  which  never  matures  its  fruit  in  the  United  States. 

Peterkin  (Audrey  Peterkin,  Brazier  Peterkin,  Crossland, 
Texas  Wood,  Wise). — Originally  with  smooth  black  seeds,  and 
producing  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  lint.  Plant  of  medium  size, 
well  branched,  limbs  short- jointed;  bolls  medium  in  size,  oval, 
not  clustered,  not  maturing  very  early;  lint  34  to  36  per  cent., 


426  APPENDIX  III. 

staple  22  to  25  mm.    One  of  the  largest  producers  of  lint  and 
one  of  the  best  of  the  Rio  Grande  type. 

Peterkin  Limb  Cluster  (Peterkin  New  Cluster). — Similar  to 
the  above,  except  that  the  bolls  are  somewhat  clustered. 

Petit  Gulf. — One  of  the  oldest  varieties;  plant  large,  long- 
limbed  and  long  jointed,  not  very  prolific ;  bolls  medium  in 
size,  ovate,  not  maturing  early;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple 
22  to  25  mm. 

Pittman  (Pittman  Extra  Prolific,  Pittman  Improved). — A 
cluster  variety  from  Louisiana,  similar  to  the  Dickson;  early 
maturing  and  short  limbed. 

.Pitt  Prolific. — Once  grown  in  Mississippi,  but  no  longer  in 
cultivation. 

Pollock. — A  cluster  variety,  maturing  somewhat  later  than 
the  Peerless;  staple  35  to  40  mm. 

Poor  Man's  Relief. — From  California,  similar  to  Peterkin. 

Prolific.     (See  Sugar  Loaf.) 

Prout.     (See  Banana.) 

Queen  (Southern  Queen).— A  local  variety  from  Arkansas, 
similar  to  Peterkin. 

Rameses. — Old  variety,  similar  to  Peerless. 

Richardson  Improved.     (See  Jones  Long  Staple.) 

Rio  Grande. — Original  form  of  many  of  the  upland  short- 
staple  varieties;  lint  34  to  36  per  cent.,  staple  18  to  22  mm. 

Rod  Smith  25  Cent. — Once  grown  in  Mississippi,  but  not 
now  in  cultivation. 

Roe  Early. — A  local  variety  from  Louisiana;  maturing  early; 
lint  28  to  30  per  cent.,  staple  25  to  30  mm. 

S.  B.  Maxey.     (See  Maxey.) 

Sea-island. — Native  of  West  Indies  and  Central  America, 
one  of  the  first  varieties  cultivated  in  the  United  States;  staple 
long  and  fine  and  commands  the  highest  price,  but  is  not  profit- 
able to  grow  more  than  50  miles  from  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Shine  Early. — An  early  maturing  variety  of  the  Rio  Grande 
type,  similar  to  Peterkin. 

Silk.     (See  Jethro.) 

Simpson.     (See  Dickson.) 


COMMERCIAL   VARIETIES   OF  AMERICAN  COTTON.         427 

Six  Oaks. — Similar  to  Jones  Long  Staple,  but  plant  less 
vigorous;  bolls  not  so  large,  and  seeds  are  smooth  and  black; 
lint  28  to  30  per  cent.,  staple  35  to  40  mm. 

Smith  Standard.     (See  Ben  Smith.) 

South  Carolina  Pride.     (See  Early  Carolina.) 

Southern  Hope. — Plant  pyramidal,  limbs  strong  and  straight, 
prolific;  bolls  large,  pointed,  maturing  rather  late;  lint  30  to  32 
per  cent.,  staple  28  to  32  mm.  One  of  the  best  types  for  the 
southern  belt,  but  maturing  too  late  for  the  northern  latitudes. 

Spider  Web.     (See  Cobweb.) 

Storm  Proof.     (See  Texas  Storm  Proof.) 

Sugar  Loaf  (Lewis  Prolific,  Prolific,  Vick  100  Seed). — Orig- 
inated from  Mexican  seed ;  a  cluster  variety  which  is  now  obsolete. 

Sutton  Peerless.     (See  Peerless.) 

Talbot.     (See  Allen.) 

Tarver. — Early  Alabama  variety,  probably  same  as  Sugar 
Loaf. 

Taylor. — This  name  is  applied  to  two  distinct  varieties,  the 
one  in  Alabama  having  a  small  boll  and  short  staple,  the  other 
in  South  Carolina  having  a  large  boll  and  long  staple. 

Tennessee  Gold  Dust.     (See  King.) 

Tennessee  Silk.     (See  Ozier.) 

Texas  Storm  Proof  (Bahama,  Drought  Proof,  Storm  Proof).-— 
Plant  tall  with  slender  and  often  drooping  limbs,  not  very  prolific; 
bolls  large,  pointed,  maturing  late;  lint  33  to  35  per  cent.,  staple 
23  to  26  mm.  Called  "  storm  proof  "  because  the  matured  seed 
cotton  does  not  fall  from  the  bolls  as  readily  as  with  most  varieties. 

Texas  Wood. — Probably  identical  with  Peterkin. 

The  Premium.     (See  Peerless.) 

Truitt  Premium  (Truitt  Improved). — Plant  large,  limbs  long 
and  spreading,  prolific;  bolls  very  large,  roundish,  maturing 
late;  lint  30  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  22  to  25  mm.  Very  similar  to 
Duncan  Mammoth  and  Mammoth  Prolific. 

Vick  100  Seed.     (See  Sugar  Loaf.) 

Welborn  Pet. — Plant  erect,  slender,  limbs  short  and  numerous, 
very  prolific;  bolls  round,  medium  in  size,  clustered,  maturing 
early;  lint  31  to  32  per  cent.,  staple  22  to  25  mm.  One  of  the 


428  APPENDIX  III. 

best  known  cluster  varieties,  as  it  has  but  little  foliage  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  plant. 

Williams. — An  old  short-stapled  variety,  yielding  33  to  35 
per  cent,  of  lint,  and  probably  identical  with  Peterkin. 

Williamson. — Plant  not  large,  limbs  short,  prolific;  bolls 
small,  round,  maturing  early;  lint  30  to  31  per  cent.,  staple 
22  to  25  mm. 

Willimantic. — Similar  to  Duncan  Mammoth. 

Willis. — Similar  to  Allen;  lint  20  to  30  per  cent.,  staple  33 
to  37  mm. 

Wimberly. — Similar  to  Duncan. 

Wise.     (See  Peterkin.) 

Wonderful  (Jones  Wonderful). — Similar  to  Jones  Long  Staple, 
but  has  larger  boll  and  a  smaller  seed;  excellent  type  of  upland 
long-staple  varieties;  lint  28  to  30  per  cent.,  staple  35  to  40  mm. 

Zellner. — Plant  small  to  medium,  limbs  short,  prolific;  bolls 
medium  or  small,  round,  maturing  early;  lint  30  to  31  per  cent., 
staple  20  to  25  mm. 

In  the  report  on  cotton  of  the  Tenth  Census,  58  varietal  names 
were  mentioned;  but  only  6  of  the  varieties  popular  in  1880  are 
still  in  common  cultivation,  and  these  which  have  stood  the  test 
of  time  are :  Boyd  Prolific,  Dickson,  Herlong,  Peeler,  Petit  Gulf, 
and  Texas  Storm  Proof. 

It  has  been  found,  as  a  rule,  that  as  the  percentage  of  lint 
is  increased  the  length  of  staple  decreases.  The  long-limbed 
varieties  grow  slowly,  require  less  readily  available  plant-food 
and  less  frequent  cultivation  than  the  short-limbed,  the  latter 
being  a  direct  product  of  high  culture.  It  is  also  found  that 
short-limbed  and  cluster  varieties  cannot  be  made  to  produce  as 
long  a  fibre  as  the  long-limbed  varieties.  As  to  the  relative  prices 
of  the  lint  from  the  different  varieties,  this  varies  greatly  from 
year  to  year;  in  1887  the  lint  from  the  long-staple  sorts  (35  mm. 
or  more)  sold  in  the  New  Orleans  market  for  nearly  double  the 
prices  paid  for  the  short  staples  (20  to  30  mm.). 


COMMERCIAL   VARIETIES  OF  AMERICAN  COTTON. 
CLASSIFICATION  ACCORDING  TO  LENGTH  OF  STAPLE. 


429 


Less  than  25  mm. 

From  25  to  30  mm. 

Above  30  mm. 

Barnett 

Bates  Big  Boll 

Allen 

Ben  Smith 

Bates  Favorite 

Bailey 

Boyd  Prolific 

Big  Boll 

Bragg 

Brannon 

Champion  Cluster 

Cobweb 

Catawba 

Excelsior 

Colthorp  Pride 

Chambers 

Kieth 

Cook 

Cherry  Cluster 
Dickson 

King 
Magruder  Marvel 

Eureka 
Ferrell 

Drake  Cluster 

Magruder  XL 

Griffin 

Ellsworth 
Grayson 

Mammoth  Prolific 
Marston 

Jones  Long  Staple 
Matthews 

Hawkins 

Mattis 

Maxey 

Herlong 

Okra 

Moon 

Hunnicutt 

Ozier 

Six  Oaks 

Jenkins 
Jones  Improved 
-Jones  No.  i 

Peeler 
Peerless 
Roe  Early 

Southern  Hope 
Willis 
Wonderful 

Minter 

Oats 

Peterkin 

Petit  Gulf 

Rio  Grande 

Texas  Storm  Proof 

Truitt  Premium 

Welborn  Pet 

Williamson 

Zellner 

CLASSIFICATION  ACCORDING  TO  TIME  OF  MATURITY. 


Early. 

Medium. 

Late. 

Bailey 

Barnett 

Allen 

Brooks  Improved 
Cherry  Cluster 
Dickson 

Bates  Big  Boll 
Ben  Smith 
Boyd  Prolific 

Barnes 
Bates  Favorite 
Bragg  Long  Staple 

Drake  Cluster 

Brannon 

Catawba 

Early  Carolina 

East 

Champion  Cluster 

Grayson  Early  Prolific 
Hunnicutt 

Eureka 
Griffin 

Cobweb 
Colthorp  Pride 

Jenkins 

Hawkins 

Cook 

Kieth 

Herlong 

Ellsworth 

King 
Matthews 
Oats 

Jones  Long  Staple 
Magruder  Marvel 
Mattis 

Ethridge 
Jones  Improved 
Mammoth  Prolific 

Okra 

Moon 

Marston 

Ozier 

Peterkin 

Minter 

Peerless 

Peterkin  Cluster 

Peeler 

Pitman 
Welborn  Pet 

Petit  Gulf 
Pollock 

Southern  Hope 
Texas  Storm  Proof 

Williamson 

Six  Oaks 

Truitt  Premium 

Zellner 

Willis 

43° 


APPENDIX  III. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VARIETIES  ACCORDING  TO  LINT. 


Less  than  30  Per  Cent. 

From  30  to  34  Per  Cent. 

More  than  34  Per  Cent. 

Allen 

Barnett 

Bates  Big  Boll 

Bailey 

Bates  favorite 

Big  Boll 

Bragg 

Ben  Smith 

Brannon 

Cobweb 

Boyd  .Prolific 

Catawba 

Colthorp  Pride 
COOK. 

Chambers 
Champion  Cluster 

Excelsior 
Grayson 

Eureka 

Cherry  Cluster 

Jenkins 

terrell 

Dickson 

Peterkin 

Griffin 

Drake  Cluster 

Rio  Grande 

Jones  Long  Staple 

Ellsworth 

Texas  Storm  Proof 

Matthews 

Hawkins 

Roe  Early 

Herlong 

Six  Oaks 

Hunnicutt 

Wonderful 

Jones  Improved 

Willis 

Jones  No.  i 

Kieth 

King 

Magruder  Marvel 

Magruder  XL 

Mammoth  Prolific 

Marston 

Mattis 

Maxey 

Minter 

Moon 

Oats 

Okra 

Ozier 

Peeler 

Peerless 

f 

Petit  Gulf 

Southern  Hope 

Truitt  Prem  um 

Welborn  Pet 

Wil  iamson 

Zellner 

APPENDIX  IV. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF   THE  TEXTILE  FIBRES. 

Alcan.     Etudes  stir  les  arts  textiles  a  1' Exposition  de  1867. 

Traite  complet  de  la  filature  du  coton,  Paris,  1875. 

Allen.    Commercial  Organic  Analysis,  vol.  i  and  vol.  3,  part  3. 

Philadelphia,  1898. 
Auer.    Ueber  die  Bastfasern  der    Moraceen.    Oester.   Botan. 

Zeitsch.,  1903,  p.  353. 

Annuaire  de  1'industrie  liniere.    Dunbar.    Lille. 

Baine.    History  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture  in  Great  Britain. 

London,  1835. 

Barille*.     Etude  sur  les  fibres  textiles.     Strassburg,  1868. 
Beech.     Dyeing  of  Cotton  Fabrics,  pp.  1-22.    London,  1901. 

—  Dyeing  of  Woolen  Fabrics,  pp.  1-14.    London,  1902. 
Bernardin.   Nomenclature  nouvelle  des  550  fibres  textiles.    Gaud, 

1872. 
Berthold.    Ueber    die    mikroskop.    Merkmale    der    wichstigen 

Pflanzenfasern.     1883. 
Biesiadecky.     Artikel  Haut,   Haare  und  Naegel   in    Strieker's 

Handbuch  der  Lehre  von  den  Geweben.    Leipzig,  1871. 
Bolley.    Beitrage  zur  Theorie  der  Farberei, 
Untersuchung    ueber    die    Yamamayseide.     Polyt.    Zeit- 

schrift,  1869,  p.  142. 
and    Schoch.    Ueber    die    Seiden.    Dingl.    Polyt.    Jour., 

1870,  p.  72. 

Borain.     La  culture  du  coton.     Brussels,  1875. 
Bottler.    Die  vegetabilischen  Faserstoffe.    Leipzig,  1900. 

Die  animalischen  Faserstoffe.    Leipzig,  1902. 

431 


432  APPENDIX  IV. 

Bouche*  and  Grothe.    Ramie,  Rhea,  China-grass  und  Nessel- 

faser.     Berlin,  1884. 
Bowman.     The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre.     Manchester,  1885. 

The  Structure  of  the  Cotton  Fibre.     Manchester,  1881. 

Brooks.     Cotton  Manufacturing.     Blackburn,  1888. 

—  Handbook  for  Cotton  Manufacture  Students.    London,  1889. 
Browne.    Trichologia  mammalium.     Philadelphia,   1853. 
Bruckner.     Einiges  iiber  die  neue  Gespinnstpflanze  Ramie.    1870. 
Bvttenvorth.     Cotton  and  its  Treatment.     Manchester,  1881. 
Charpentier.    Les  textiles;    Ency.  Chimique.    Paris,  1890. 
Cherot.     Etudes  sur  la  culture  du  lin,  1845. 
Christy.     New  Commercial  Plants  and  Drugs.     1882. 
Clark.    Practical  Methods  in  Microscopy.    Boston,  1900. 
Cross  and  Bevan.    Cellulose.    London,  1895. 

Researches  on  Cellulose,  1895  to  1900.    London,  1901. 

Later  Researches  on  Cellulose.     London,  1905. 

Paper  Making,  pp.  i-no.    London,  1900. 

Bevan,  and  King.      Report  on  Indian  Fibres.     London, 

1887. 

Crum.     On  the  Cotton  Fibre.     1863. 
Cuniasse  et  Zwilling.     Essais  du  Commerce;    Maiteres  textiles, 

pp.  225-232.    Paris,  1901. 

Dana.     Cotton  from  Seed  to  Loom.     New  York,  1878. 
Danzer.    Les  industries  textiles  a  1'exposition  de  1889.    Paris, 

1889. 
Davis,  Dreyfuss,  and  Holland.     Sizing  and  Mildew  in  Cotton 

Goods.     Manchester,  1883. 
Demoor.    Lin,  culture  et  rouissage,  1857. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture.    Yearbook,  1903.     Silk  Culture  Bulletin. 
Deschamps.     Le  coton.     Paris. 
Dickson.     Fibre  Plants  of  India.     1865. 
Dodge.    Descriptive  Catalogue  of  the  Useful  Fibre  Plants  of  the 

World.    Report  No.  9  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 

1897. 

Report  on  Flax  Culture.    No.  10,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture.    1898. 
Donnell.    History  of  Cotton.    New  York,  1872. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE  T EXILE  FIBRES.  433 

Dupont.     La  filature  du  coton.     Paris,  1881. 

Duseigneur-Kleber.     Le  cocon  de  soie.     Paris,  1875. 

Eble.    Die  Lehre  von  die  Haaren.    2  vols.    Vienna,  1831. 

Editors  of  the  "  Dyer  and  Calico  Printer."  Mercerisation.  Lon- 
don, 1903. 

Ellison.     Handbuch  der  Baumwollcultur.     Bremen,  1881. 

Engel.    Ueber  das  Wachsen  abgeschnittener  Haare.     1856. 

Erdl.  Vergleichende  Darstellung  des  inneren  Baues  der  Haare. 
1841. 

Favier.     Note  industrielle  sur  la  ramie.     Avignon,  1882. 

Focke.  Mikrosk.  Untersuch.  der  bekannteren  Gespinnstfasern, 
der  Shoddywolle,  etc.  Archiv.  der  Pharmacien,  1886. 

Fre*my.    La  Ramie.     Paris,  1884. 

Frey.     Das  Mikroskop  fur  Aertze,  etc. 

Ganeval.     Le  Coton.     Lynn,  1881. 

Gardner.    Wool  Dyeing,  part  I,  pp.  7-19.     Philadelphia,  1896. 

Die  Mercerisation  der  Baumwolle.     Berlin,  1898. 

Geldard.     Handbook  on  Cotton  Manufacture.     New  York,  1867. 

Georgevics.  Chemical  Technology  of  the  Textile  Fibres.  Trans. 
Salter.  London,  1902. 

Gnehm.  Taschenbuch  fur  die  Farberei  und  Farbenfabriken : 
"  Gespinnstfasern,"  pp.  1-17.  Beilin,  1902. 

Grothe.  Technologic  der  Gespinnstfasern.  Vollstandiges  Hand- 
buch der  Spinncrei.  Berlin,  1876  and  1882. 

"  Textil  Industrie  "  in  Muspratt's  Chemie,  vol.  5. 

Gurlt.  Vergleichende  Untersuchungen  ueber  die  Haut.  Berlin, 
1844. 

Halphen.  La  Pratique  des  Essais  commerciaux  et  industriels 
Matieres  organiques.  "Textiles  et  Tissues,"  pp.  326-342. 
Paris,  1893. 

Hamon.    Culture  du  lin  en  Bretagne. 

Hanausek  und  Nebeski.  Mikroskopie  von  Pelzhaaren.  Jahres- 
bericht  der  Wiener  Handelsakademie.  1884. 

Hannan.     Textile  Fibres  of  Commerce.    London,  1902. 

Heermann.  Dye:s'  Materials:  "Textile  Fibres,"  pp.  16-24. 
Trans.  Wright.  London,  1900. 

Untersuchungsmethoden  der  Textil  Chemie.   Berlin,  1902.  . 


434  APPENDIX  IV. 

Herzfeld.  Das  Farben  und  Bleichen,  etc.  Berlin,  1890. 
Higgins.  On  the  Microscopic  Character  of  Cotton.  Proc.  Lit. 

and  Phil.  Soc.  of  Liverpool,  1872. 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE   TEXTILE  FIBRES.  435 

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436  APPENDIX  IV. 

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438  APPENDIX  IV. 

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Braunschweig,    1891. 
Zetzsche.    Faserstoffe.    Leipzig,  1905. 


INDEX. 


A 

PAGB 

Abaca 314 

Abbasi  cotton 182 

Abelmoschus  fibre 369,  375 

Abelmoschus  tetraphyllos 133 

Absorbent  cotton 208 

Abutilon  avicennoe 284 

graveolens 284 

incanum 284 

indicum 284 

muticum 284 

peri  plod  folium 284 

Acme  cotton 417 

Acetyl  cellulose,  use  of,  for  artificial  silk 267 

Acid  dyes,  action  of,  on  cotton 231 

-eaction  of  fibres  with '.  . . .   336 

Acid  potassium  oxalate,  action  of,  on  cotton 228 

Acid-proof  fabrics 266 

Acid  purification  test  for  vegetable  fibres 157 

Acids,  absorption  of,  by  cotton 230 

Acid  salts,  action  of,  on  cotton 231 

Adamkiewcz   test 120 

Adipocelluloses 221 

African  bowstring  hemp 329 

cottons 183 

sheep 10 

Agave  americana 134,  320 

decipiens 298 ,  3 1 6 

jcetida 298 

heteracantha 298,  319 

lechuguilla 326 

lophantha 326 

rigida 298,  316 

saxi 322 

Ailanthus  silk 102.  129 

439 


440  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Alabama  cotton 190 

Albumens,  composition  of 120 

Algodon  de  seda 254 

Alkali-cellulose 219,  235 

reactions  of 235 

Alkaline  solutions,  action  of,  at  high  temperatures  on  cotton 228 

Alkalies,  absorption  of,  by  cotton 230 

action  of,  in  presence  of  air  on  cotton 228 

action  of,  on  cotton 228 

action  of,  on  impurities  in  cotton 228 

action  of,  under  pressure  on  cotton 229 

Allanseed  cotton 189 

Allen  Acme  cotton 417 

cotton 417 

Long  Staple  cotton 417 

Silk  cotton 417 

Aloe  fibre 142,  318 

hemp 330,  371,  373 

A loe  perfoliata 133 

Alpaca 79 

microscopy  of 79 

Aired  cotton 417 

Alvarado  cotton 417 

Ambari  hemp 297,  308 

microscopy  of 309 

American  commercial  vegetable  fibres 334 

cottons,  classification  of,  according  to  amount  of  lint.  .  .  .  430 
classification  of,  according  to  length  of  staple.  .  .  .429 
classification  of,  according  to  time  of  maturity.  . .  429 

commercial  varieties  of 417 

Amianthus  asbestos 5 

Amido-cellulose 229 

Ammonia,  action  of,  on  cotton 229 

Ammoniacal  copper  oxide,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

solution,  preparation  of 214,  337 

nickel  oxide,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

solution,  preparation  of 337 

Amount  of  wool  in  fleece. 3  x 

Amphibole 4 

Amyloid 217 

Analysis  of  silk-cotton  fabrics 384 

textile  fabrics,  comparison  of  methods  of 389 

wool-cotton  fabrics 378 

wool-cotton-silk  fabrics 381; 

wool-silk  fabrics 383 


Ananas  sativa. 


323 

Angola  sheep , I0 


INDEX.  441 

PAGE 

Aniline  sulphate,  reaction  of  fibres  with 340 

reaction  of  vegetable  fibres  with 153 

solution,  preparation  of 341 

Animal  and  vegetable  fibres,  general  differences  between 2,3 

fibres i 

distinction  of,  from  vegetable  by  ignition  test 335 

Animalized  cotton 270 

Animalizing  vegetable  fibres 43 

Annual  cocoons 93 

AntheTcea  assama 102 

mylitta 102,  129 

pernyi 102,  353 

.yama-mai 102,  129 

Antiphlogin 257 

Apocynum  cannabinum.  . 298 

A-pou  fabrics 294 

Arabian  hemp 298 

Argali 10 

Arryndia  ricini 353 

Arsenic  in  woolen  fabrics 40 

Artificial  cotton 7 

Artificial  fibres 6 

horse-hair 223 

silk,  commercial  manufacture  of 261 

comparison  in  cost  with  natural  silk 261 

dyeing  of 266 

effect  of  water  on 265 

from  cellulose  acetate 267 

from  zinc  chloride  solution  of  cellulose 261 

meaning  of  term.  , 256 

silks 7.  255 

chemical  reactions  of 268 

classification  of 255 

comparison  of 268 

distinction  of,  from  true  silks 269 

identification  of 350 

microscopy  of 268 

physical  appearance  of 268 

physical  properties  of 269 

tensile  strength  of 269 

Artificial  wool 7° 

Asbestos 4 

fineness  of >  •  •  •        4 

use  of,  in  ancient  times 6 

Asclepias  cornutii 3^1,374 

cotton 252 

curassamca 252,  361,  374 


443  INDEX. 

PAG  8 

Asclepias  fibres ^33 

incarnata 252 

syriaca 252 

volubilis 252 

Ash  of  vegetable  fibres,  determination  of 155 

Ashmouni  cotton 182 

Aspergillus  glaucus  on  cotton 232 

Assam  cotton 1 9° 

Atlas  silk 129 

Attacus  atlas 102 

lunula 353 

ricim 102,  129 

selene 129 

Attalea  funtfera 142,  15° 

Auchenia  llama 82 

huanaco 83 

paco 79 

viccunia 8 1 

Audrey  Peterkin  cotton 417 

Australian  sheep 12 


B 

Bacillus  amylobacter 276 

Baden  hemp 300 

Bahama  cotton .. 417 

Bahia  cotton 189 

Bailey  cotton 417 

Bakrabadi  jute 286 

Bamboo  fibres 142 

papers 140 

Bamia  cotton 182 

Banana  cotton 417 

plant 316 

Bancroft  Herlong  cotton 417 

Prolific  Herlong  cotton 417 

Long  Staple  cotton 418 

Barbadoes  cotton 175 

Barnes  cotton 418 

Barnett  cotton 418 

Barwall  sheep 10 

Basic  dyes,  action  of,  on  cotton 231 

salts,  action  of,  on  cotton 231 

Basinetto  silk 98 

Basketry  fibres 139 

Bass  fibres 139 

Bast  fibres 131,  134,  136,  143,  146 


INDEX.  443 


PAGE 


Bast  fibres,  classification  of 147 

derivation  of 136 

dislocations  in 131 

reactions  of 348 

structure  of 146 

papers 140 

Bastose,  reactions  of 288 

Basts 141 

Bates  Big  Boll  cotton 418 

Favorite  cotton 418 

Bauhinia  racemosa 133 

Bave 99 

Bearded  sheep 10 

Beard-hair  of  sheep 1 1 

influence  of  cultivation  on .' 1 1 

Beaumontia  fibres 133 

grandiflora 252,  360 

Belgium  flax,  grades  of 272 

Belle  Creole  cotton 418 

Benders  cotton 1 90 

Bengal  cotton 183,  191 

hemp 297 

Ben  Smith  cotton 418 

Bergnes  flax,  grades  of 272 

Bhatial  jute 286 

Bhownuggar  cotton 191 

Bibliography  of  textile  fibres 43 1 

Bichu 327 

Big  Boll  cotton 410 

Big-horn  sheep 10 

Bilatu  cotton 191 

Binders  of  wool 1 1 

Biuret  test 120 

Black-faced  sheep 10 

Black-fellow's  hemp 297 

Black  mildew  on  cotton 233 

seed  cotton 418 

silk,  analysis  of 398 

Bleaching,  effect  of,  on  strength  of  cotton 233 

Blue  flax 272 

Bob  cotton 418 

Bob-silk  cotton 418 

Bob  White  cotton 418 

Bohmeria  nivea 133,  291 

tenacissima 133,  291 

Boiled-off  liquor 1 16 

influence  of,  in  dyeing  silk 109 


444  INDEX. 

PACK 

Bolivar  County  cotton 4^ 

Bologne  hemp 298 

Bolton  counts  of  cotton  yarn 175 

Bombax  carolinum 250 

ceiba 249,  363 

cotton 141,  249,  374 

comparison  of,  with  cotton 249 

uses  for 249 

cumanensis 250 

heptaphyllum 133,  249,  362 

malabaricum 249 

j  pentandrum 251 

pubescens 250 

rhodognaphalon 2 50 

villosum 250 

Bombay  hemp 297 

Bombyx  cynthia 129. 

faidherbi 1 2  9^ 

mori 92,  101 ,  1 29'^ 

Borden  Prolific  cotton 418. 

Botrytis   bassiana i  o  i 

iavella 101 

Bourbon  cotton 191 

Bourette  silk '.    112 

Boweds  cotton 1 90. 

Bowstring  hemps 143,  297,  330- 

Boyd  Prolific  cotton 418 

Brady  cotton 419. 

Bragg  Long  Staple  cotton 419 

Brannon  cotton 419' 

Brazier  Peterkin  cotton 419. 

Brazilian  sheep i  o 

Brick-red  mildew  on  cotton 232 

' '  Brilliant "  yarns. 7 

Brins 99 

Broach  cotton 183,  1 90 

Broad-tailed  sheep 10 

Bromelia  argentina 331 

fastuosa 331 

fibres 142,  331. 

karatas 133,  331 

inguin 134,  33  r 

botany  of 332 

Pit" 333; 

Sagenaria 331 

serra 331 

sylvestris 331 


INDEX.  445 

PAGE 

Bromelia  sylvestris,  botany  of 333 

Bromin,  action  of,  on  wool 48 

Brooks  Improved  cotton 419 

Broom-corn  fibre 139 

Broom-grass 134 

Broom-root  fibre 139 

Brown  cotton 419 

Egyptian  cotton 182,  189 

hemp 297 

mildew  on  cotton 232 

Brush  fibres 138 

Bush  cotton 419 

C 

Cabul  sheep 10 

Cadilla  fibre 328 

Caesar  weed 143,  328 

Cago  sheep 10 

Calabria  cotton 191 

Calcium  oxalate,  occurrence  of,  in  vegetable  fibres 151 

Cnlcino : 101 

Calcutta  hemp 297 

Calender  finish  on  cotton  cloth 248 

Calf-hair.  .  . 87 

Calotropis  gigantea 133,  252,  361 

bast  fibre  from 253 

procera 252,  361,  374 

Camel-hair 83 

medulla  in 27 

microscopy  of 84 

Canadian  flax 272 

Canapa  piccolo, 298 

Cannabis  gigantea 298 

saliva 133,  298 

Caraguata  fibre 333 

Carbohydrates 130,  214 

Carbon  disulphide,  action  of,  on  cotton 230 

Carbon  percentage,  determination  of,  in  vegetable  fibres 156 

Carbonization,  process  of 71 

Carded  silk 103 

wool 29 

Carolina  Pride  cotton 419 

Carthagena  cotton 190 

Caryota  urens 139 

Cashmere 77 

microscopy  of 77 


446  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Catacaos  cotton 419 

Catawba  cotton 419 

Cat-hair 87 

microscopy  of 88 

Caustic  alkalies,  action  of  concentrated  solutions  of,  on  cotton 229 

potash  solution,  preparation  of 337 

soda,  action  of,  under  pressure  on  cotton 229 

solution,  preparation  of 337 

Cebu  hemp 297,  314 

Ceara  cotton 185,  189 

Ceiba  cotton 249,  363 

' '  Cellestion "  silk 267 

Celluloid 227 

Cellulose 213 

acetate 220 

aceto-sulphate 221 

acetyl  derivative  of 217 

action  of  acetic  anhydride  on 217 

action  of  caustic  alkalies  on 219 

act  on  of  sulphuric  acid  on 217 

action  of  vanadium  salts  on 221 

action  of  zinc  chloride  on 218 

as  basis  of  vegetable  fibres 130 

benzoate 220 

chemical  constitution  of. 209 

chemical  reactions  of 217 

dinitrate 226 

filaments 218 

hexanitrate 225 

hydrate 234 

in  vegetable  fibres,  determination  of 155 

isolation  of,  from  vegetable  fibres 215 

nitrated  products  of 225 

nitrates 220 

pentanitrate 226 

proposed  chemical  formulas  for 216 

sulphate 220 

use  of,  for  artificial  silk 262 

tetracetate 220 

preparation  of 220 

tetranitrate 226 

thiocarbonate 2ig 

trinitrate 226 

xanthate 2 19 

Cell-wall  of  cotton  fibre,  comparison  of,  with  bast  fibres 171 

Century  plant ,,  20 

Chamber's  cotton 


INDEX.  447 

PAGE 

Champion  Cluster  cotton 419 

Chappe  silk IIZ 

Chardonnet  silk 256 

practical  manufacture  of 259 

Chemical  reactions  of  chief  fibres 336 

Cherry  Cluster  cotton 419 

Cherry  Long  Staple  Prolific  cotton 419 

Chicru.  . 


327 

Chief  vegetable  fibres,  analytical  review  of 372 

China  hemp 298 

grass 291,  365 

analysis  of 297 

Chinese  cotton 185,  190 

jute t. 284 

sheep 10 

Chlorin,  action  of,  on  wool 48 

water,  preparation  of 337 

Chlorinated  wool,  bleaching  of 49 

preparation  of .- 48 

properties  of 48 

reducing  harshness  of 48 

uses  of 48 

Cholesterol 39 

Chorisia  insignis 251 

speciosa 251 

Chrysalis  of  silkworm 96 

Chrysotile 5 

Cibotium  barometz 252 

chamissoi 252 

glaucum 251 

menziesii 252 

Citric  acid,  action  of,  on  cotton 228 

Classification  of  fibres i 

wool  fibres 32 

Climatic  conditions,  influence  of,  on  American  wools 30 

Cluster  cotton 419 

Coarse  bast  fibres 141 

Cobweb  cotton 419 

Cochineal  tincture,  preparation  of ' 335 

reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

Cochlospermnm  gossypium 251,  364,  374 

Cochran  cotton 42° 

Extra  Prolific  cotton 420 

Short-limbed  Prolific  cotton 420 

Cocoanada  cotton I91 

Cocoanut  fibre 13° 

Cocons  cocoons 98 


448  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Cocoon,  amount  of  fibre  available  from 98 

difference  in  layers  of 103 

killing  of  pupa  in no 

method  of  reeling no 

proportion  of  silk  in 98 

thickness  of  filaments  in 98 

Cocos  nucifera 134 

Coir  fibre 13°,  144,  373 

microscopy  of 324 

uses  of 325 

Collodion 227 

silk,  first  attempts  at  making 255 

Colloidal  nature  of  fibres 2 

Colorado  hemp ., 307 

River  hemp. ; 297 

Coloring-matters,  action  of,  on  cotton. 231 

action  of,  on  wool. 49 

Colthorp  Eureka  cotton 420 

Pride  cotton 420 

Combed  wool 29 

Commercial  varieties  of  American  cotton 417 

Commersonia  fraseri 297 

Common  hemp 298 

sheep 10 

Compound  celluloses 221 

Comptah  cotton 183,  190 

Conditioned  weight  of  textiles,  table  for  calculating 68 

Conditioning  apparatus 56 

calculations  involved  in 58 

houses 54 

methods  of 54 

of  wool 53 

system  adopted  at  Bradford 54 

test,  method  of  conducting 57 

Congo  sheep 10 

Conkanee  hemp 306 

Cook  cotton,  t 420 

Copper  sulphate  solution,  preparation  of 337 

sulphide,  action  of,  on  cotton 230 

Corcliorns  capsularis 133,  284 

decemangulatus 284 

fuscus 284 

olitorius 133,  284 

Cordage  fibres I37 

breaking  strain  of 311,  322,  326 

Cordia  latifolia z  ^  ^ 

Cordonnet  silk II2 


INDEX.  449 


Cork  tissue  .................................................  „   151 

Cortical  layer  of  wool  .........................................      24 

cells  in  ...................................      24 

Corypha  umbraculifera  ........................................    134 

Cosmos  fibre  .................................................      71 

Cotted  fleeces  ................................................      38 

Cotton,  absorbent,  quality  of  .............................  .....    208 

absorption  of  acids  by  .................................    230 

absorption  of  alkalies  by  ...............................    230 

acetylation  of  .................  ........................    231 

action  of  acid  dyes  on  ..................................    231 

action  of  acid  salts  on  ..................................    231 

action  of  ammoniacal  copper  oxide  on  ...................    199 

action  of  basic  dyes  on  .................................    231 

action  of  basic  salts  on  .................................   231 

action  of  coloring-matters  on  ...........................    231 

action  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  on  ........................    224 

action  of  enzymes  on  ..................................    232 

action  of  high  temperatures  on  .............  .  ............    222 

action  of  hydrochloric  acid  on  ...........................    224 

action  of  hydrofluoric  acid  on  ...........................    227 

action  of  metallic  salts  on  ............  '.  .................    231 

action  of  mineral  acids  on  ..............................    223 

action  of  natural  dyes  on  ...............................    231 

action  of  nitric  acid  on  .................................    224 

action  of  organic  acids  on  ..............................    227 

action  of  oxidizing  agents  on  ............................    231 

action  of  saliva  on  .....................................    232 

action  of  Schweitzer's  reagent  on  ........................    222 

action  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  on  .......................    223 

action  of  substantive  dyes  on  ...........................    231 

action  of  zinc  chloride  on  ...............................    223 

active  chemical  groups  in  ...............................    231 

albuminous  matter  in  ..................................    212 

botany  of  ............................................    160 

chemical  constitution  of  ................................    209 

chemical  reactions  of  ..................................    222 

coloring-matter  in  .....................................    210 

diameter  of  different  varieties  of  ........................    187 

dry  distillation  of  .....................................    222 

effect  of  bleaching  on  strength  of  ........................   233 

effect  of  mercerization  on  strength  of  ....................    238 

estimation  of,  in  fabrics  ........................   378,  379,  382 

fermentation  of  .......................................    232 

first  cultivation  of,  in  America  ..........................    160 

grading  of,  as  to  value  .................................    179 

historical  data  concerning  ..............................    157 


450  INDEX. 


Cotton,  hygroscopic  quality  of 206 

influence  of  chemical  properties  of,  in  dyeing 231 

influence  of  moisture  on  strength  of 208 

introduction  of,  into  China 158 

introduction  of,  into  Europe 157 

introduction  of,  into  Japan 158 

length  of  different  varieties  of 187 

mention  of,  by  Herodotus 157 

microscopic  classification  of 202 

microscopical  properties  of 201 

mineral  matter  in .    209,  2 1 1 

names  given  to,  in  various  countries 172 

natural  impurities  in 209 

origin  and  growth  of ...    1 60 

pectin  compounds  in 211 

phosphoric  acid  in 211 

physical  changes  in,  by  mercerizing 236 

physical  properties  of 203 

physical  structure  of 1 86 

regain  in  conditioning 207 

thermochemical  reactions  of 230 

time  for  sowing 163 

use  of,  by  early  American  races 159 

use  of,  in  Egypt 159 

use  of,  in  India 157 

use  of,  in  Peru 1 60 

Cotton  and  linen,  distinction  between 342 

Cotton  fabrics,  analysis  of 408 

Cotton  fibre 365,  373 

analysis  of 213 

conditions  influencing  quality  of 171 

development  of 169 

elasticity  of 204 

microchemical  reactions  of 202 

microscopy  of 360 

physiological  development  of 168 

structural  parts  of ." 198 

tensile  strength  of 204 

twist  in 200 

Cotton  grass 144,  357 

Cotton  plant 161 

analysis  of 166 

best  soil  for  cultivation  of 172 

best  temperature  for  growth , 171 

chemical  constituents  of 168 

cross-fertilization  of 178 

cultivation  of .162 


INDEX.  451 


PAGE 


Cotton  plant,  fertilizing  constituents  in 167 

influence  of  weather  on  growth  of 172 

list  of  species  of 173 

time  required  for  maturity  of 165 

varieties  of 173 

Cotton-tree 249 

Cotton-wax 209 

Cotton  yarns,  tensile  strength  of 205 

Cottonized  ramie 145,  293 

Cottonseed,  constituents  of 168 

Count  of  cotton  yarns,  method  of  ascertaining 180 

Courtrai  flax,  grades  of 272 

Cow-hair 85 

microscopy  of 85 

Cox  Royal  Arch  Silk  cotton 420 

Crawford  Premium  cotton 420 

Peerless  cotton 420 

Craping  of  silk  fabrics 125 

Cretan  hemp 297 

sheep 10 

Crimean  sheep 10 

Crin  v£getale 136,  144 

Crossland  cotton 420 

Crotolaria  juncea 133,  297,  306 

retusa 308 

sericea 308 

striata 308 

tenuifolia 253,  298 

Cryptostemma  calendulaceum 356 

hairs 358 

Cuba  bast 138 

Cuban  hemp 298,  306 

Cuprammonium  silk 262 

solution,  preparation  of 263,  341 

reaction  of  fibres  with 340 

Cupric  sulphate,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

Curumbar  sheep 10 

Cutdse 151,  221 

CycadcB  macrozamia 355 

Cyprian  gold  thread 7 

Cystisus  scoparius 343 

D 

Dacca  cotton 173 

Dalkeith  Eureka  cotton 420 

Datisca  cannabina 297 

"Dead"  cotton 186 


45 »  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Dean  cotton 420 

Dearing  cotton 420 

Deccan  sheep 10 

Degumming  of  silk 1 16 

Denier 112 

international 113 

Deniers,  conversion  tables  for 114,  115 

varieties  of 112 

Deo  cotton 174 

Deora  jute 286 

Desi  jute 286 

Deswal  jute 286 

Dharwar  cotton 183,  190 

Dhollerah  cotton 183,  191 

Diamond  cotton 420 

Diazotized  wool  45 

acid  number  of 45 

action  of  phenols  on '. 45 

iodin  number  of 45 

Dickson  Cluster  cotton 420 

cotton 420 

Improved  cotton 420 

Dicotyledonous  fibres 368 

plants 134 

Discharging  silk 1 16 

Dixon  cotton 420 

Doe-hair 17 

Domestic  sheep 10 

Double  silk  cocoons 98 

Drake  Cluster  cotton 420 

Drought-proof  cotton 420 

Drying  of  wool 53 

Duklum  sheep i  o 

Duncan  cotton 420 

Mammoth  cotton 420 

Dutch  flax,  grades  of 272 

Du  Vivier's  silk 260 

Dyeing,  influence  of  chemical  groups  in  wool  in 49 

structure  of  wool  fibre  with  reference  to 28 


E 

Early  Carolina  cotton 421 

East  cotton 421 

Improved  Georgia  cotton 421 

Echappe.  silk 112 

Economic  classification  of  fibres 137 


INDEX.  453 

PAGE 

Edgeworthia  papyrifera I42 

Edisto  Sea  Island  cotton !gg 

Edredon  vegetale 251 

Egyptian  cotton I75 

Bamia  variety  of 1 8 1 

use  of,  for  mercerizing 243 

Elairerin ^9 

Elais  guineensis 134 

Elasticity  of  wool  fibre 25 

Elephant  grass 144 

Ellsworth  cotton 421 

Embroidery  silk 112 

Enzymes,  action  of,  on  cotton 232 

Epidermal  scales,  absence  of,  in  wool 16 

arrangement  of,  on  wool 21 

number  of,  on  wool  fibres 22 

Eria  silk 102 

Eriodendron  anfractuosum 251 ,  362 

Eriophorum  angustifol-ium 357 

latifoliwn 356 

Esparto 134,  368 

grass 133 

Estimation  of  cotton  in  fabrics 378,  379,  382 

moisture  in  fabrics 382 

wool  in  fabrics 378,  382 

Ethridge  cotton 421 

Eupatorium  cannabinum 298 

Eureka  cotton 421 

"Excelsior" 136 

Excelsior  cotton 421 

Exogens 134 

Extra  Early  Carolina  cotton 421 

Extract  wool 70,  7 1 


F 

Fabric  fibres 137 

Fagara  silk 102 

False  hemp 298 

sisal  hemp 298,  319 

Farrar  Forked  Leaf  cotton 421 

Prolific  cotton 421 

Feather  grass 134 

substitutes 140 

Fehling's  reagent,  preparation  of 394 

Felting,  cause  of,  in  wool 19 

Fermentation  of,  in  cotton 232 


454  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Ferric  sulphate,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

solution,  preparation  of 337 

Fezzan  sheep 10 

Fibre-cells,  method  of  isolating 341 

Fibre  sections,  method  of  preparing 341 

Fibre-testing  machine 415 

Fibroin 1 1 6 

action  of  polarized  light  on 123 

amount  of,  in  raw  silk 118 

chemical  composition  of 1 18 

chemical  reactions  of 120 

comparison  of,  with  keratin 119 

composition  of 120 

decomposition  products  of 115 

preparation  of  pure nS 

presence  of  amido  group  in 119 

Fibre- vascular  fibres 134 

Fiji  sea-island  cotton 181 ,  189 

Fimble  hemp 298 

Finishing  materials,  estimation  of,  in  fabrics 382,  407 

Flacherie i  oo 

Flax,  commercial  grades  of 271 

countries  cultivating 271 

cultivation  of,  in  America 271 

dimension  of  fibre  elements  in 278 

methods  of  retting 273 

Flax  cellulose,  isolation  of  pure 278 

fibre,  bast  cells  of 280 

properties  of  the  wax  on 281 

strength  of 279 

Flax-like  fibres 141 

Flax  plant,  cultivation  of,  for  seed 272 

description  of 272 

species  of 271 

Flax-retting,  chemistry  of 276 

Fleece,  amount  of  fibre  in 33 

Flemish  flax 272 

Florette  silk II2 

Florida  bowstring  hemp 330 

sea-island  cotton 181 ,  189 

Floss  silk 98,  1 1 1 

French  flax,  grades  of 272 

Friesland  flax,  grades  of 272 

Frisonnets  silk 98 

Prisons  silk ^g 

Fruit  fibres 131,  142 

Fuchsin   reaction  of  fibres  with 336 


INDEX.  455 


PAGE 


Fuchsin  solution,  preparation  of  ...............  3-16 

Fur  .................................................  .......        9 

spinning  of  ..............................................        o 


Furcr&a  cubensis. 


298 


gigantea  .............................................   3o6 

Furnes  flax,  grades  of  .........................................    272 


G 

Galletame  silk  ...............................................  98 

Gallini  cotton  ................................................  182 

Egyptian  cotton  ............        .  .  .....................  189 

sea-island  cotton  ......................................  181 

Gambo  hemp  ........................................   308,  369,  375 

Garar  sheep  .................................................  10 

Garber  cotton  ................................................  421 

Gattine  .....................................................  100 

Gelatin  silk  ..................................................  267 

Georgia  Prolific  cotton  ........................................  421 

Giant  asclepias  ..........................................    143,  253 

hemp  .................................................  298 

lily  ...................................................  306 

Ginestra  fibre  ................................................  143 

Ginning  cotton  ..............................................  165 

Glass  threads,  fineness  of  ......................................  6 

wool  ...................................................  6 

Glovers'  wool  ................................................  29 

Goat-hair  ...................................................  -  78 

microscopy  of  .......................................  78 

Goitred  sheep  ...............................................  10 

Gold  Dust  cotton  ............................................  421 

Gold  thread  .................................................  7 

Gossypium  acumlnatum  ........................................  133 

album  ...........................    .................  173 

arboreum  ..................................    133,  173.  *77 

barbadense  ............................    133.  *73.  174,  180 

botany  of  ................................  174 

braziliense  .....................................   173.  J84 

chinense  ...........................................  1  73 

conglomeration  ......................................  133 

croceum  ...........................................  1  73 

eglandulosum  .......................................  173 

elatum  .......................  .  ....................  173 

fructescens  .........................................  173 

fuscum  ............................................  173 

glabrum  ...........................................  1  73 


456  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Gossypium  glandulosunt 173 

herbaceum 133,  173,  175,  182 

botany  of 175 

hirsutum 173,  177,  183 

botany  of 177 

indicum 173 

jamaicense 173 

javanicunt 173 

latifolium 173 

leonivum 173 

macedonicum 173 

maritimum 173 

micrantham 173 

molle 173 

nanking 173 

neglectum 173 

botany  of 176 

nigrum 173 

obtustfolium 173 

oligospermum 173 

paniculatum 173 

perenne 173 

peruvianum 173,  178,  184 

polycarpum 181 

punctatum 173 

racemosum - 173 

religiosum 173 

roxburghianum 174 

sandwichense 178 

siamense 174 

sinense. 174 

strictum ; 174 

stocksii 174 

tahitense 178 

tomentosunt 174 

tricuspidatum 174 

vitifolium 174 

wightianum 174 

botany  of 176 

Grass  cloth 2  94 

Grass-like  fibres 139 

Grass  papers 140 

Grasserie 101 

Gray  cotton,  motes  in 168 

Grayson  Early  Prolific  cotton 421 

Grease  in  fabrics,  determination  of 406 

Green  mildew  on  cotton 232 


INDEX.  457 


PAGE 

Green  ramie 291 

Grege  silk m 

Griffin  cotton 42  r 

Guinea  sheep I0, 

Guncotton 422 


II 


Hair  fibres 8 

follicle 1 3 

Hawkins  cotton 422 

Extra  Prolific  cotton 422 

Hay's  China  cotton 422 

Hayti  hemp 298 

Health  of  sheep,  influence  of,  on  wool  fibre 31 

Heat  conductivity  of  animal  and  vegetable  fibres 3 

retaining  value  of  clothing  materials 3 

Hemp 297,  366 

analysis  of 305 

comparative  strength  of 307 

hygroscopic  quality  of 305 

microchemical  reactions  of 302 

microscopy  of 301 

retting  of 299 

uses  of 305 

Hemp-seed  oil 300 

Henequen 316,  322 

Herlong  cotton 422 

Hibiscus  cannabinus 133,  297,  308 

elatus 138 

esculentus 308 

sabdariffa 298 

tiliaceus 309 

Hightower  cotton 422 

Hilliard  cotton   , 422 

Hindoostan  dumba  sheep 10 

Hingunghat  cotton 183,  190 

Hogan  cotton 422 

Hollingshead  cotton 422 

Holoptelia  integrifolia. 133 

Honduras  silk-grass 333 

Hooniah  sheep 10 

Hop  fibre 134 

Hornblende 4 

Horse-hair 87 

microscopy  of 87 

Howell  cotton 422 


458  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Hoya  viridiflora 36x 

Humphrey  Eureka  cotton 422 

Humulus lupulits *34 

Hunnicutt  Cnoice  cotton 422 

cotton -522 

Hydrated  cellulose 217 

Hydrocellulose   217 

preparation  of 217 

Hydrolysis  of  vegetable  fibres 155 

Hygienic  flannels 254 

Hygroscopic  moisture  in  various  fibres 53 

in  wool 52 


I 

Ife  hemp 298,  329 

Impregnating  cloth 7  * 

Improved  Long  Staple  cotton 422 

Prolific  cotton 422 

Index  Kewensis 178 

Indian  hemp 298,  306 

okra  fibre 309 

sheep 10 

lodin  and  sulphuric  acid  reagent,  reaction  of  fibres  with 340 

zinc  chloride  reagent,  preparation  of 341 

reaction  of  fibres  with 340 

lodin  solution,  preparation  of 338 

lodin-sulphuric  acid  reagent,  reactions  of  vegetable  fibres  with.  .  152,  342 

Irish  flax,  grades  of 272 

Iron  sulphide,  action  of,  on  cotton 230 

Isocholesterol 39 

Istle 317,  320,  326 


J 

Jaeger  cloth 84 

Jaggery  palm 139 

Jangipuri  jute 286 

Japanese  braids 139 

hemp.  ,   298 

papers 140 

Jaumave  lechuguilla 326 

istle.  .  . 326 

Javanese  sheep. 10 

J.  C.  Cook  cotton 422 

Jenkins  cotton 422 

Poor  Man's  Friend  cotton; 422 


INDEX.  459 

PAGE 

Jethro  cotton 422 

Jones  Herlong  cotton 422 

Improved  cotton 423 

Long  Stapled  cotton 423 

No.  i  cotton 423 

Jower's  cotton , 423 

Jubbolpore  cotton 298 

Jumbo  cotton 423 

Jute   284,  368,  375 

analysis  of 288 

chemical  composition  of 287 

chemical  properties  of 289 

compounds  present  in 288 

distinction  of,  from  flax  and  hemp 347 

distinction  of,  from  New  Zealand  flax 347 

hygroscopic  quality  of 288 

introduction  of,  into  Europe 284 

isolation  of  cellulose  from 287 

Jangipuri 286 

microscopy  of 286 

uses  of 289 

Jute  butts <  •  286 

cuttings -. 286 

Jute-like  fibres 141 

K 

Kapok 251 

Karatas  plumieri , 333 

botany  of 333 

Karimganji  jute 286 

Kelly  cotton 423 

Kemps 28 

Keratin 3& 

composition  of 36 

Khandeish  cotton J9' 

Kidney  cotton •  •  •    X73»  l84 

Kieth  cotton •  •  • 4*3 

King  cotton 423 

Kittul  fibre *39 

Kurrachee  cotton J 

Kydia  calycina  X33 

L 

Lace-bark  tree *• 

Lageum  spartum I34 

Lagetta  lintearia. X34.  13* 


460  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Lagos  cotton 19° 

La  Guayran  cotton 190 

Lana  del  tambor 250 

vegetale 250 

Laportea  gigas 298 

Lanuginic  acid,  preparation  of 42 

properties  of 42 

Lasiosyphon  speciosus 133 

Lead  acetate  solution,  preparation  of 337 

salts,  use  of,  in  hair-dyeing 34 

Leaf  fibres 142,  367 

hairs 130 

Lechuguilla  fibre 322 

Lehner's  silk 261 

Lesser  cotton  grass 356 

Levant  cotton 191 

Lewis  Prolific  cotton 423 

Lieberman's  test  for  animal  and  vegetable  fibres 338- 

Ligneous  matter,  detection  of 348 

Lignified  fibre,  definition  of 149 

Lignin,  test  for 132 

Lignocelluloses 221 

Linden  bast 133 

Linen 27  f,  364,  376 

action  of  chemical  reagents  on 238 

action  of  Schweitzer's  reagent  on 279 

analysis  of 281 

chemical  properties  of 278 

eolor  of 279 

commercial  uses  of 277 

distinction  of,  from  cotton 342 

distinction  of,  from  hemp 347 

heat  conductivity  of 280 

history  of 271 

hygroscopic  moisture  in 282 

lustre  of 279 

microscopy  of 277,  280 

physical  properties  of 278 

preparation  of 271 

regain  allowed  in  conditioning 282 

retting  of 271 

use  of,  by  American  Indians 271 

use  of,  by  ancient  Egyptians 271 

use  of,  by  Swiss  Lake  Dwellers 271 

world's  production  of : 271 

Linen  fibre,  ash  of 281 

differences  from  hemp 281 


INDEX.  461 

PAGE 

Linen  yarns,  count  of 283 

count  of  bleached 279 

grading  of 283 

Linseed  oil 272 

Linters 168,  190 

Linum  angustifolium 271 

commun 271 

luvisii 271 

usitatissimum 133,271 

Little  Brannon  cotton 423 

Llama  fibre 79,  82 

microscopy  of 82 

Locks  of  wool ii 

Louisiana  cotton 423 

Lumen  of  vegetable  fibres 131 

Lustra-cellulose    256 

action  of  reagents  on 265 

properties  of 265 

Lustre,  cause  of,  in  wool 23 

of  wool,  conditions  affecting 23 

Lustring  cotton  cloth  by  calendering :. 248 

use  of  silk  solutions  for 270 

Lyon's  gold  thread 7 


M 

McAllister  Peerless  cotton 424 

McBride  cotton 424 

McCall  cotton 424 

Mclver  cotton 424 

Maceo  cotton 185,  189 

Machine  for  determining  tensile  strength  of  fibre 414 

Madagascar  sheep i  o 

Madder  tincture,  preparation  of 335 

reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

Madra  hemp 307 

Madras  cotton 191 

Magruder  Marvel  cotton 423 

XL  cotton 423 

Maguey 318 

Majagua  fibre 309,  357 

Makko-Jumel  cotton 182 

Malino  fibre 318 

Malins  Prolific  cotton 423 

Mammoth  Cluster  cotton 423 

Prolific  cotton 423 

Manila  hemp 298,  313,  370 


462  INDEX. 

PACK 

Manila  hemp,  chemical  composition  of , 316- 

distinction  of,  from  sisal 347 

microscopy  of 315 

uses  of 314. 

Many-horned  sheep , i  o 

Maoutia  puya 298 

Marabout  silk 112 

Maranhams  cotton 185,  189 

Marsdenia  fibres 133 

Marston  cotton 424 

Martin  Prolific  cotton 424. 

Mastodon  cotton 424 

Matthews  cotton 424 

Matting  fibres 139 

Mattis  cotton 424 

Mauritia  flexuosa 134 

Mauritius  hemp 318 

microscopy  of 319 

uses  of 318. 

Maxey  cotton 424 

Median  layer  in  fibres 146- 

Medulla  of  wool 26,  27 

Melilotus  alba 134,  343' 

Memphis  cotton 190 

Menouffieh  Egyptian  cotton 189. 

Mercury  nitrate  solution,  preparation  of 336 

reaction  of,  with  fibres 336 

Merino  sheep 10,  12 

Mercerized  cotton 2341 

action  of,  with  dyes 236 

bleaching  of 247 

cause  of  lustre  on. 237 

Herbig's  experiments  on 242 

microscopy 246 

physical  form  of 236 

production  of  scroop  in 243- 

properties  of 236,  245 

strength  of 238 

wool,  action  of  dyes  on 47 

Mercerizing     229 

action  of  caustic  soda  in 235 

application  of  tension  in 241 

conditions  of 239 

discovery  of,  by  John  Mercer 234. 

effect  of  degree  of  twist  in 245 

effect  of  tension  in 235- 

effect  of  washing  in 235 


INDEX.  463 

PACK 

Mercerizing,  formation  of  alkali-cellulose  in 235 

importance  of  washing  process  in 243 

influence  of  character  of  fibre  in 243 

influence  of  temperature  on 240 

meaning  of  term 234 

patents  relative  to 245 

physical  changes  during 236 

preparation  of  cotton  for 243 

proper  density  of  caustic  soda  for 239 

stretching  force  required  in 242 

time  required  for 241 

use  of  acids  for  washing  in 243 

use  of  alcohol  in 240 

use  of  alkaline  sulphides  in 240 

use  of  ammonia  for  washing  in 243 

use  of  carbon  disulphide  in 240 

use  of  Egyptian  cotton  for 243 

use  of  glycerol  in 240 

use  of  metallic  salts  in 239 

use  of  mineral  acids  for 239 

use  of  resists  in 244 

use  of  sea-island  cotton  for 243 

use  of  short-stapled  fibres  fon 244 

use  of  various  reagents  for 239 

use  of  zinc  oxide  in 240 

Mercerizing  effect  produced  by  calendering 248 

in  pattern  by  printing 244 

of  cotton  cloth 247 

action  of  sizing  materials  in 247 

liquors,  additions  of  various  chemicals  to 240 

of  vegetable  fibres  as  a  chemical  test 156 

patents,  recent  decisions  on 245 

process,  phases  of 234 

Metallic  salts,  action  of,  on  cotton 231 

action  of,  on  wool 49 

relative  power  of  fixation  of,  by  fibres 49 

threads 7 

Meta-pectic  acid 276 

Meta-pectin 276 

Mexican  Burr  cotton 424 

cotton 424 

Meyer's  cotton 424 

Micro-analytical  tables  for  vegetable  fibres 355 

Microscopic  analysis  of  fabrics 411 

Mikado  yellow,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

Mildew,  formation  of,  on  cotton 232 

formation  of,  in  wool 51 


464  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Mildew  in  wool,  nature  of 51 

on  cotton,  conditions  favoring 232 

varieties  of 232 

Milkweed,  bast  fibre  from 252 

vegetable  silk  from 252 

Millon's  reagent 120 

preparation  of 336 

reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

Mineral  fibres 4 

Minor  hair  fibres 75.8? 

Minter  cotton 424 

Mirganji  jute 286 

Mitafifi  cotton 182 

Egyptian  cotton 189 

Mixed  fibres,  systematic  analysis  of , 348 

Mixes 74 

Mobile  cotton 184,  189 

Mohair 75 

character  of  American  and  foreign 76 

microscopy  of 76 

uses  of 75 

Moina  cotton 424 

Moisture  in  vegetable  fibres,  determination  of 155 

Molisch's  test  for  vegetable  fibre 338 

Money  Bush  cotton 424 

Monkey-bass 139 

Monocotyledonous  fibres 369 

Moon  cotton 424 

Moorva fibre 330 

Morocco  sheep -. .' 10 

Morvant  de  la  chine i  o 

Motchenetz  flax 271 

Motus  multicaulis 92 

Mountain  sheep 9 

Muga  silk 129 

Mulberry  silk 129 

Multibolus  cotton 425 

Multiflora  cotton 425 

Mummy  cloths 271 

Mungo 70 

Murumuru  palm 144 

Musa  cavendishii 316 

eusete 3x6 

mindanensis 3x5 

paradisiaca J34,  3 1 5 

sapienMm 3  T  ^ 

I34;  397,  298,  313 


INDEX.  465 

PAGE 

Muskmallow  fibre 369 

Mysore  sheep 10 

N 

Nankin  cotton 185 

Narainganji  jute 286 

Natural  dyestuffs,  action  of,  on  cotton 231 

textures 138 

Nep  on  cottonseed 168 

Nepal  paper 143 

sheep 10 

Nephila  Madagascariensis 101 

Nequen 316 

Neri  silk 98 

Nesselgarn 328 

Nesseltuch 328 

Netting  fibres 137 

Nettle  fibre 326 

microscopy  of 328 

New  Zealand  flax 310,  370,  373 

chemical  composition  of 313 

distinction  of,  from  jute,  hemp,  and  linen 346 

microscopy  of 311 

uses  of 313 

hemp 298 

Nitrated  cellulose 266 

viscosity  of  solutions  of 267 

solvents  for 256,  267 

microscopy  of 266 

Nitration  of  cotton 226 

vegetable  fibres  as  a  chemical  test 156 

Nitrocellulose ' 220 

Nitrogen,  presence  of,  in  wool 34 

Noils 29 

Norfolk's  cotton 190 

Nurma  cotton 174 

O 

Oats  cotton 425 

Ochroma  lagopus 251,363 

Oidium  aurantiacum  on  cotton 233 

Oil  in  fabrics,  determination  of 4°6 

Okra  cotton 425 

fibre 3°S 

leaf  cotton 4*5 


466  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Oomrawuttee  cotton 183,  190 

Organzine  silk 1 1 1 ,  112 

Orleans  cotton 183,  189 

Orsey  silk 112 

Ouate  v.'g'tale 251 

Ovis  ammon 9 

ammon  guineensis 10 

aries 9 

dries  angolensis 10 

aries  congensis. i  o 

aries  munadce 10 

aries  steattniora 10 

barnal •. i  o 

brevicaudatus 10 

cagia 10 

ethiopia 10 

guineensis 10 

hispanium 10 

laticaudatus 10 

longicaudatus i  o 

rnusmon 9 

polyceratus 10 

rusticus ,      10 

selingia i  o 

strepsiceros i  o 

Oxalic  acid,  action  of,  on  cotton .' 228 

Oxidizing  agents,  action  of,  on  cotton 231 

Oxycellulose 225,  231 

Ozier  cotton 425 

Silk  cotton 425 


P 

Paina  limpa 249 

Palm  papers 140 

Palma  pita 326 

samandoca 326 

Palmetto  fibre 139 

Palmyra  fibre 139 

Panama  hats  139 

Pandanus  fibres 142 

odoratissimus 133 

Pangane  hemp 298,  329 

Paper  material 140 

mulberry  fibre 134 

Paraiba  cotton 189 


INDEX.  467 


PAGE 


Para-pectic  acid  ..............................................   376 

Para-pectin  ..................................................    2-5 

Parenchyma  .................................................        ^ 

Parisian  artificial  silk  .........................................    262 

Pattes  de  lievre  ...............................................    251 

Pauly's  silk  .........    ........................................   262 

Pearce  cotton  ................................................    425 

Peat  fibre  ................................................    ?I,  I42 

Pebrine  .....................................................     99 

Pectic  acid  ..................................................    276 

Pectin  .....................................................    276 

matters  in  flax  ............................  .............    276 

Pectocelluloses  ...............................................    221 

Pectose  ..................................................  221,  276 

Pectosic  acid  .................................................    276 

Peeler  cotton  ..............  .............................      190,  425 

Peerless  cotton  ...............................................   425 

Penicillium  glaucum  on  cotton  .................................    232 

Perces  cocoons  ...............................................      98 

Pernambuco  cotton  .......................................    185,  189 

Peruvian  cotton  .........................................  175,  425 

sea-island  cotton  ....................................      182 

Peterkin  cotton  .............................................  425 

Limb-cluster  cotton  ...................................    426 

New  Cluster  cotton  .......................  ............   426 

Petit  Gulf  cotton  .............................................    426 

Phloem  ......................................................  131 

Phloroglucol,  reaction  of  fibres  with  .............................   340 

reagent,  preparation  of  ............................   341 

Phoenix  dactylifera  ............................................    134 

Phormium  tenax  .....................................    133,  298,  310 

Physiology  of  wool  fibre  .......................................      13 

Piassave  fibre  ............................................    142,  150 

Picric  acid  solution,  preparation  of  ..............................    338 

Piedmontese  hemp  ...........................................    298 

Pigment  matter  in  wool  .......................................      27 

Pib  fabrics,  analysis  of  .......................................    388 

Pina  cloth  ...................................................   323 

Pineapple  fibre  ......................................    134,  323.  3^8 

microscopy  of  ..................................   323 

Pink  mildew  on  cotton  ........................................    233 

Piques  cocoons  ................................  '•  ..............      98 

Pita  fibre  ...................................................  320 

uses  of  .............................................    323 

hemp  ..........................................    298,  371,  373 

Pitt  Prolific  cotton  ...........................................  462 


468  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Pittman  cotton 426 

Extra  Prolific  cotton 426 

Plaiting  fibres *39 

Plantain 3'6 

Plant-cells 2 

Pliability  of  wool  fibre.  .  .., 24 

Plumose  fibres J44 

Plush  fabrics,  analysis  of 388 

Foil  silk 1 12 

Pollock  cotton 426 

Poly voltine  cocoons 93 

Pool-retting  of  flax 273 

Poor-man's  Relief  cotton 426 

Poplar  cotton 359 

Potash  salts  in  raw  wool 39 

Potassium  oxalate,  action  of,  on  cotton 228 

Prolific  cotton 426 

Protein  matter a 

Proteoid  of  wool 36 

Prout  cotton 426 

Pseudo  fibres i36 

hemps 143 

jute 369,  375 

Pua  hemp 298 

Puccinia  graminis 232 

Pucha  sheep 10 

Pulled  wool 29 

Pulu  fibre 251,  355 

Purple  mildew  on  cotton 233 

Pyroxene 4 

Pyroxylin,  alcohol-ether  solvent  for 258 

preparation  of,  for  Chardonnet  silk 258 

hydrate 258 

silk,  basis  of 256 

denitration  of 260 

inflammability  of 257 

manufacture  of 259 

recovery  of  solvent  in  making 260 

varieties  of 256 


Q 

Qualitative  analysis  of  fibres 334 

tests  for  textile  fibres 335 

Quality  of  cotton  fibre,  conditions  influencing 171 

wool,  conditions  influencing 30 


INDEX.  469 

PAGE 

Quantitative  analysis  of  fibres 378 

Queen  cotton 426 

Queensland  cotton igo 

hemp 298- 

R 

Rabbit-hair 88 

microscopy  of 89 

Raffia 144 

fibre 330 

Rameses  cotton 426 

Ramie 291,  365 

analysis  of 297 

antiquity  of , 292 

decortication  of 294 

microscopy  of 296 

properties  of 292 

strength  of 292 

Rangoon  cotton 191 

hemp 298 

Raphia  fibre 330 

Raphia  raffia 330 

tcstigera 134 

vinijera 142 

Raw  silk in 

classification  of 1 1 1 

microscopic  appearance  of 104 

Raw  wool,  analysis  of 33 

Red  Peruvian  cotton 189 

silk  cotton '. 250 

Reed-mace  hair 358 

Regain  in  conditioning 52 

allowed  by  U.  S.  Government 56 

at  Bradford 54 

at  Philadelphia 55 

at  Roubaix 55 

fixed  by  International  Congress 5$ 

Regenerated  cellulose 219 

Retting  of  flax,  action  of  micro-organisms  in 276 

Rhea  fibre 291 

Rhus  typhina 298 

Richardson  Improved  cotton 426 

Ricotti  silk 98 

Rigidity  of  wool  fibre 24 

Rio  Grande  cotton 189,  426 

Rippling  of  flax 272 


470  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Roa  fibre 3<>5 

Roanoke's  cotton 19° 

Rod  Smith  25-cent  cotton 426 

Roe  Early  cotton 426 

Roselle  hemp. 298 

Rough  Peruvian  cotton 184,  189 

weaving  fibres 139 

Rugginose  cocoons 98 

Russian  flax,  different  grades  of 271 


S 

Saccharum  officinale 359 

Saliva,  action  of,  on  cotton 232 

Salix  alba 134,  343 

Samuella  carnerosana 326 

Sansevieria  cylindrica 298,  329 

fibre 134,  142,  329,  370 

guineensis 297,  329 

kirkii 298,  329 

longiflora 297,330 

roxburghiana 297 ,  330 

zeylanica 330 

Santos  cotton 184,  186 

Sarothamnus  vulgario.  ... 134 

Saturnia  cecropia 353 

polyphemus 353 

spini 35o 

Saxony  Electoral  merino 12 

Scab,  influence  of,  on  wool  fibre 31 

"  Schreiner "  finish  on  cotton  cloth 248 

Schweitzer's  reagent,  preparation  of 126,  337 

reactions  of  vegetable  fibres  with 152 

Scinde  cotton 183,  191 

Schlerenchymous  fibres I46 

Scroop  of  silk   x IO 

method  of  producing IIO 

Sea-grass  fibre 130,  330 

Sea-island  cotton   175,  ^o,  426 

points  of  superiority  in X8o 

use  of,  for  mercerizing 243 

Sea-wrack I3o?  I44 

Seed-hairs I3I>  I44 

classification  of I44 

other  than  cotton 24o 

Senegal  silk I29 


INDEX.  471 

PAGE 

Sericin !  r6 

action  of  formaldehyde  on 122 

action  of  polarized  light  on 123 

amount  of,  in  raw  silk 116 

chemical  composition  of 121 

chemical  reactions  of 122 

preparation  of  pure 120 

Serin "122 

Sesbania  macrocarpa 297,  307 

Sewing-silk 112 

Shambliar  sheep 10 

Sheep 8 

varieties  of 10 

zoology  of 9 

Sheep's  fleece,  amount  of  fibre  in 13 

Shine  Early  cotton 426 

Shoddy 70 

determination  of,  in  fabrics 412 

examination  of 71 

microscopy  of 72 

tests  for 73 

varieties  of 70 

Short-tailed  sheep 10 

Sida  retusa 133,  298 

Silicic  acid,  occurrence  of,  in  vegetable  fibres 151 

Silk 9 

action  of  ammoniacal  nickel  oxide  on 126 

action  of  basic  zinc  chloride  on 125 

action  of  caustic  soda  on 124 

action  of  chlorin  on 126 

action  of  coloring-matters  on 126 

action  of  concentrated  acids  on 125 

action  of  dilute  acids  on 123 

action  of  dilute  alkalies  on 124 

action  of  hydrochloric  acid  on 125 

action  of  hydrofluoric  acid  on 126 

action  of  hydrofluosilicic  acid  on 126 

action  of  high  temperatures  on 123 

action  of  metallic  salts  on 124 

action  of  nitric  acid  on 125 

action  of  ortho-phosphoric  acid  on 125 

action  of  oxidizing  agents  on 126 

action  of  Schweitzer's  reagent  on 126 

action  of  sodium  chloride  on 1*4 

action  of  stannic  chloride  on 126 

action  of  sugar  on 124 


472  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Silk  action  of  tannic  acid  on 123 

amount  of  ash  in 117 

appearance  of,  under  polarized  light 103,  354 

brightening  of 108 

chemical  analysis  of 117 

chemical  constitution  of 1 16 

chemical  reactions  of 123 

coloring-matter  of 123 

conditioning  of 108 

creping  of,  with  strong  sulphuric  acid 125 

cultivation  of,  in  America.  .  .    92 

degumming  of 1 1 6 

density  of 109 

detection  of  fatty  matters  in 395 

determination  of  size  of 113 

determination  of  weighting  in 396 

diazotizing  of 119, 

discharging  of j  16 

distinction  of,  from  wild  silks 350 

elasticity  of 109 

electric  qualities  of 1 08 

Hohnel's  view  as  to  structure  of 91 

hygroscopic  quality  of 108 

influence  of  chemical  groups  in,  on  dyeing  of 126 

influence  of  degumming  on  strength  of 109 

influence  of  weighting  on  strength  of 109 

lustre  of I08 

lustring  of I08 

microscopy  of x  03. 

origin  and  cultivation  of 91 

physical  properties  of I03 

reaction  on  burning -. I2^ 

scroop  of ! I0, 

solubility  of,  in  hydrochloric  acid x 25 

solvents  for I2(, 

stripping  of I  j  5 

tensile  strength  of I09, 

w"d   101 

Silk  and  cotton  fabrics,  analysis  of 384 

Silk  conditioning,  regain  in I0g 


Silk-cotton. 


179,  426 


Silk  filament,  size  of 99 

Silk  from  spiders I0r 

siik-giue !;!;;.!:;;;;*.;;;;;;  n6 

constituents  of j  2  , 

Suk-grass .............'.'..'.  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.  3 2 3, 


INDEX.  473 


Silk  industry,  history  of 92 

statistics  of 92 

Silk  moth 97 

Silk  reeling IIO 

Silk  shoddy 98 

Silk  yarns,  classification  of II2 

determination  of  count  of iI2 

Silk  wadding II2 

Silk  worm    9r 

cultivation  of 93 

diseases  of 99 

Silver  cloth 252 

Silver  nitrate,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

solution,  preparation  of 336 

Silver  thread 7 

Simal  cotton 250 

Simpson  cotton 426 

Single  silk 112 

Siretz  flax 271 

Sisal  hemp 144,  216,  298 

microscopy  of 317 

uses  of 3 1  g 

Six  Oaks  cotton 427 

Sizing  of  silk,  factors  for 113 

Slag  wool 7 

Slanetz  flax 271 

Smith  Standard  cotton 427 

Smooth-haired  sheep 10 

Smooth  Peruvian  cotton 185,  189 

Smyrna  cotton 182,  190 

hemp 298 

Sodium  nitroprusside  solution,  preparation  of 337 

Sodium  plumbite,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

use  of,  for  testing  wool 34 

solution,  preparation  of.. 337 

Sodium  sulphide,  action  of,  on  cotton 229 

Soie  ondee 1 1  * 

Solvents  for  silk 126 

South  Carolina  Pride  cotton 427 

South  Hope  cotton 427 

Southern  moss 142 

Spanish  merino 12 

moss *4° 

sheep 10 

sparto r43 

Spartium  junceum *34 


474  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Sparto  fibres 142 

Spider-web  cotton 427 

Spinning  fibres 137 

Sponge  cucumber  fibre 137 

Sponia  wightii 133 

Spun  glass,  fibres  of 6 

Spun  silk in 

sizing  of 115 

"Staff" 140,  313 

Stains  on  woolen  goods  due  to  sulphur 34 

Stannic  chloride,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

solution,  preparation  of 336 

Staple  of  wool 1 1 

Stearerin 39 

Stem  fibres 131,  142 

Sterculia  villosa 133 

Stinging  nettle 327 

St.  Louis  cotton 190 

Storm-proof  cotton 427 

Straw  plaits 139 

Stripping  of  silk 116 

Strophanth'As  fibres 133,  254,  360 

Structural  fibres 135 

Struc;ure  of  wool  fibre 13 

Strussa  silk 98 

Stuffing  fibres 139 

Substantive  dyes,  action  of,  on  cotton 231 

Sugar-cane  hairs 359 

Sugar-loaf  cotton 427 

Suint 39 

Sulphur,  action  of,  on  cotton 230 

amount  of,  in  iwool 35 

presence  of,  in  wool 34 

test  for,  in  wool 34 

in  wool,  defects  due  to 34 

effect  of,  in  dyeing 35 

manner  of  combination  of 35 

method  of  removing 35 

Surat  cotton j83,  191 

Surface  fibres !35 

Sutton  Peerless  cotton 427 

Sunn  hemp 298,  306,  367 

analysis  of 308 

microscopy  of 308 

Swedish  hemp 29g 


INDEX.  475 


PAGE 

Tahati  sea-island  cotton Ig2,  189 

Takrousi  hemp 298 

Talbot  cotton 42- 

Tampico  fibre I38,  326 

hemp 298,  316,  322 

Tanner's  wool 29 

Tannic  acid,  action  of,  on  cotton .    228 

Tarmate  cocoons pg 

Tartaric  acid,  action  of,  on  cotton 228 

Tartary  sheep 10 

Tarver  cotton 427 

Taylor  cotton 427 

Tennessee  cotton i  po 

Gold  Dust  cotton 427 

Silk  cotton 427 

Tensile  strength  of  fibres,  machine  for  determining 414 

wool  fibre 25 

Texas  cotton 184,  189 

Storm-proof  cotton 427 

Wood  cotton 427 

Textile  fibres,  chemical  reactions  of 336 

quantitative  analysis  of 378 

requirements  of i 

specific  properties  of 8 

Texti'e  papers 140 

Thespesia  lampas 133 

Thibet  wool 71 

Thistle-down 137 

Tie  material 138 

Tilia  europaa 134 

Tillanisia  fibre 133,  142 

Tinnevelly  cotton 183,  191 

"Titre"  of  silk. 112 

Tomentum 136 

Tops 29 

Tram  silk m,  112 

Tree-basts i38.  *39 

True  sisal  hemp 3 r9 

Truit  Premium  cotton. 427 

Tufts  of  wool ii 

Tula  istle 32(5 

Tungstic  acid,  action  of,  on  cotton 228 

Tuscan  braids 139 

Tussah  silk ' 102,127 


476  INDEX. 

PAGE. 

Tussah  silk,  action  of  concentrated  acids  on 125 

analysis  of  ash  from 127 

chemical  composition  of 127 

chemical  differences  from  mulberry  silk 128 

composition  of  fibroin  from 127 

physical  structure  of 128 

uses  of 103 

Tussur  silk 103 

Typha  angustifolium    - 358 

U 

ft ,  meaning  of 128 

Upholster}^  fibres 139 

Upland  cotton 184,  190 

Urena  sinuata 133,  369,  375 

fibre  of 328 

Urtica  dioica 134,  298,  327 

nivea 134 

urena 327 

Uttariya  jute 286 

V 

Vanduara  silk 267 

Varieties  of  sheep,  conditions  influencing i  r 

Vascular  bundles 142 

Vasculose 221 

Vegetable  down 249,  359,  374 

chemical  composition  of 251 

chemical  reactions  of 251 

distinction  of,  from  cotton 251 

microscopy  of 250 

Vegetable  fibres   2 

action  of  polarized  light  on 147 

anatomical  classification  of 130 

botanical  classification  of 141 

cellular  structure  of 145 

chemical  composition  of 149. 

chemical  investigation  of 154 

chemical  properties  of 149 

color  of 148 

detection  of,  in  wool 338 

dimensions  of  physical  elements  of 133 

elasticity  of 148 

flexibility  of 148 

general  classification  of 130 


INDEX.  477 


PAGE: 


"Vegetable  fibres,  hygroscopic  quality  of 149 

lustre  of 148 

microchemical  reactions  of 152 

physical  properties  of 144 

physical  structure  of 144 

polarization  colors  of 148 


structural  classification  of. 


134 

table  for  determination  of 364 

tensile  strength  of 149 

Vegetable  hairs 142 

Vegetab  e  parchment 223 

Vegetable  silk 141,  252,  358,  359,  374 

chemical  reactions  of 252 

distinction  of,  from  bombax  cotton 252 

microscopy  of 252 

from  India 374 

from  Senegal 374 

Vegetable  wool 254 

Vick  loo-seed-cotton 427 

Vicogne 79 

Vicuna 79,  81 

microscopy  of 81 

Viscose 230 

preparation  of 219,  263 

silk 263 

Vulcanized  fibre 223 


W 

Wadding  silk 98 

Walloon  flax,  grades  of 272 

Warp  silk 112 

Waste  from  wild  silk 98 

Waste  silk 1 1 1 

varieties  of 98 

Water  hemp 298 

Water  of  hydration  in  wool ....  52 

Water-proof  quality  in  fabrics,  testing  of 4°9 

Watt  silk 98 

Waviness  of  wool,  cause  of 24 

removal  of 25 

Waves,  comparative  number  of,  in  wool 25 

Weeping  sylvan 143 

Weft  silk "2 

Weighted  silk,  analysis  of 400 

with  hydrofluoric  acid 402 


478  INDEX. 

PAGES 

Weighting  in  silk  fabrics,  analysis  of 393. 

on  silk,  calculation  of 407 

Wellborn  Pet  cotton 427 

West  Indian  cotton 185 

sheep iO' 

Western  Madras  cotton 183 

White  Egyptian  cotton 183,  189 

White  ramie 291 

White  silk,  analysis  of 397 

Wild  hemp 298 

Wild  kapok 250 

Wi  d  silk 101 

comparison  of,  with  mulberry  silk 102 

microscopy  of 105 

physical  properties  of 129. 

structure  of 104 

varieties  of 102 

Wild  sheep 9- 

Willesden  canvas 222 

Williams  cotton 428 

Williamson  cotton 428 

Willimantic  cotton 428 

Willis  cotton 428 

Willow  ware 139. 

Wimberly  cotton 428. 

Wise  cotton 428 

Wonderful  cotton 428 

Wood-pulp 140- 

Wood-wool 71 

Woody  fibre 135,  j  5 1 

tests  for I5I>  34g. 

Wool,  acetyl  compound  of 50 

acid  nature  of 4  z 

action  of  alkalies  on 46. 

action  of  boiling  water  on 37 

action  of  bromin  on 48. 

action  of  chlorin  on 48. 

action  of  chromic  acid  on 44 

action  of  coloring-matters  on 49. 

action  of  concentrated  mineral  acids  on «. 45 

action  of  dilute  acids  on. 43 

action  of  dilute  caustic  alkali  on 42 

action  of  high  temperatures  on 37 

action  of  hydrochloric  acid  on 44 

action  of  metallic  salts  on 40 


action  of  milk-of-lime  on , 


48 


INDEX.  479 

PAGE 

Wool,  action  of  nitric  acid  on 44 

action  of  nitrous  acid  on 44 

action  of  organic  acids  on 45 

action  of  oxidizing  agents  on 48. 

action  of  strong  caustic  alkalies  on 42 

action  of  sulphuric  acid  on 4, 

action  of  tannic  acid  on 46 

amount  of  sulphur  in 35 

analysis  of  ash  of 40 

arsenic  in 40 

chemical  analysis  of 37 

chemical  composition  of 36 

chemical  constitution  of 33 

chemical  elements  in 33 

chemical  formula  for 36 

chemical  nature  of 36 

chemical  reactions  of 41 

coefficient  of  acidity  of .• 42 

coloring-matter  in 40 

conditioning  of 53 

decomposition  of,  with  barium  hydrate 38- 

distillation  of,  with  caustic  potash 38. 

dried-up  perspiration  in 38 

dry  distillation  of ' 3& 

estimation  of,  in  fabrics 378,  379,  382 

evidence  of  amido  group  in 41 

formation  of  mildew  in 51 

hygroscopic  quality  of 52 

imido  group  in 41 

microchemical  reactions  of 51 

mineral  matter  in 40 

production  of  lustre  on 48 

production  of  scroop  on 48 

proper  dyeing  of 53 

relative  acidity  and  alkalinity  of 45 

theory  of  dyeing  of 50 

used  per  capita  in  U.  S 13. 

water  of  hydration  in 52 

wool-grease  in   38 

Wool  and  cotton  fabrics,  analysis  of 378 

Wool  and  fur  difference  in  section  of 9 

Wool  and  silk  fabrics,  analysis  of 383 

Wool  clip  for  1905 13 

Wool,  cotton,  and  silk  fabrics,  analysis  of 385 

Wool-fat,  function  of,  on  fibre 13 

Wool  fibre,  cortical  layer  in *4 


480  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Wool  fibre,  diameter  of 92 

elasticity  of 52 

epidermal  scales  on 17,  23 

length  of 29 

medulla  of 26 

microscopy  of 17 

morphology  of 16 

number  of  waves  in 24 

tensile  strength  of 25 

waviness  in 24 

Wool  grading 1 1 

Wool-grease 38 

composition  of 39 

Wool-hair  of  sheep n 

Wool  manufactures 13 

Wool-oil 14 

Wool-sorter's  disease 79 

Wool-sorting n 

Wool  substitutes 70 

Worsted  yarn 29 

X 

Xanthoproteic  acid 44,  125 

XyLm 131 

Y 

Yama-mai  silk 129 

Yellow  mildew  on  cotton 232 

Yenu  sheep 10 

Yercum  fibre 141 

Yucca  fibre * 134,  371,  372 

papers 140 

Z 

Zealand  flax,  grades  of 272 

Zellner  cotton 428 

Zeylan  sheep 10 

Zinc  chloride,  reaction  of  fibres  with 336 

solution,  preparation  of 218,  336 

Zostera  marina 130,  330 


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Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition 8vo,    4  oo 

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Part  I.  Propagation,  Culture,  and  Improvement , 

Part  II.  Systematic  Pomology 

Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage 

Practical  Farm  Drainage 

Graves's  Forest  Mensuration 

Green's  Principles  of  American  Forestry 

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2mo,  i  50 

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*  McKay  and  Larsen's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-making 8vo,  i  50 

Maynard's  Landscape  Gardening  as  Applied  to  Home  Decoration 12010,  i  50 

Quaintance  and  Scott's  Insects  and  Diseases  of  Fruits.     (In  Preparation). 

Sanderson's  Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops I2mo,  i  50 

*Schwarz'sLongleaf  Pine  in  Virgin  Forests nmo,  I  25 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo,  2  50 

Winton's  Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods 8vo,  7  50 

Woll's  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen i6mo,  i  50 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings I2mo,  2  50 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4*0.  5  <x> 

Birkmire's  Architectural  Iron  and  SteeL 8vo,  3  50 

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Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering 8vo  3  50 

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French  and  Ives's  Stereotomy 8vu,  2  50 

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*  Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses 8vo,  3  oo 

Sanitation  of  Public  Buildings i2mo,  i  50 

Theatre  Fires  and  Panics .  -  -  i2mo,  i  50 

Holley  and  Ladd's  Analysis  of  Mixed  Paints,  Color  Pigments,  and  Varnishes 

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Kellaway's  How  to  Lay  Out  Suburban  Home  Grounds 8vo,  2  oo 

Kidder's  Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket-book i6mo,  mor.,  5  oo 

Maire's  Modern  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles I2mo,  2  oo 

Merrill's  Non-metallic  Minerals:    Their  Occurrence  and  Uses 8vo,  4  oo 

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*  Building  Mechanics'  Ready  Reference  Book : 

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*  Carpenters'  and  Woodworkers'  Edition i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

*  Cement  Workers  and  Plasterer's  Edition i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

*  Plumbers',  Steam-Filters',  and  Tinners'  Edition i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

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Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  oo 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone-cutting  and  Masonry 8vo,  i  50 

Snow's  Principal  Species  of  Wood 8vo,  3  50 

Towne's  Locks  and  Builders'  Hardware i8mo,  mor.  3  oo 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence 8vo,  6  oo 

Sheep,  6  50 

Law  of  Contracts 8vo,  3  oo 

Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
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,                                              Sheep,  5  50 

Wilson's  Air  Conditioning I2mo,  i  50 

Worcester  and  Atkinson's  Small  Hospitals,  Establishment  and  Maintenance, 
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I2mo,  i  25 


ARMY  AND  NAVY. 

Bernadou's  Smokeless  Powder,  Nitro-cellulose.  and  the  Theory  of  the  Cellulose 

Molecule I2mo,  2  50 

Chase's  Art  of  Pattern  Making i2ino,  2  50 

Screw  Propellers  and  Marine  Propulsion 8vo,  3  oo 

Cloke's  Gunner's  Examiner 8vo,  r  50 

Craig's  Azimuth 4to,  3  50 

Crehore  and  Squier's  Polarizing  Photo-chronograph 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Davis's  Elements  of  Law 8vo,  2  50 

*  Treatise  on  the  Military  Law  of  United  States 8vo,  7  oo 

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De  Brack's  Cavalry  Outpost  Duties.     (Carr.) 24mo,  mor.  2  oo 

*  Dudley's  Military  Law  and  the  Procedure  of  Courts-martial. .  .  Large  i2mo,  2  50 
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2 


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Manual  for  Courts-martial i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

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Nixon's  Adjutants'  Manual 24010,  i  oo 

Peabody's  Naval  Architecture 8vo,  7  50 

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Powell's  Army  Officer's  Examiner I2mo,  4  oo 

Sharpe's  Art  of  Subsisting  Armies  in  War i8mo,  mor.  i  50 

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Furman's  Manual  of  Practical  Assaying 8vo,        oo 

Lodge's  Notes  on  Assaying  and  Metallurgical  Laboratory  Experiments.  .  .  ,8vo,        oo 

Low's  Technical  Methods  of  Ore  Analysis 8vo, 

Miller's  Cyanide  Process I2mo, 

Manual  of  Assaying I2mo, 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.     (Waldo.) I2mo,        50 

O'Driscoli's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores 8vo, 

Ricketts  and  Miller's  Notes  on  Assaying 8vo, 

Robine  and  Lenglen's  Cyanide  Industry.     (Le  Clerc.) 8vo, 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo, 

Wilson's  Chlorination  Process izmo,        50 

Cyanide  Processes "mo, 


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Comstock's  Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers 8vo,  2  50 

Craig's  Azimuth 4to,  3  5<> 

Crandall's  Text-book  on  Geodesy  and  Least  Squares..  .  .  .8vo,  3  oo 

Doolittle's  Treatise  on  Practical  Astronomy 8vo,  4  oo 

Gore's  Elements  of  Geodesy 8vo-  2  5<> 

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Abderhalden's  Physiological  Chemistry  in  Thirty  Lectures.     (Eall  and  Dcfren). 
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*  Abegg's  Theory  of  Electrolytic  Dissociation,    (von  Ende.) .  .  .            .  .  izmo,  125 

Adriance's  Laboratory  Calculations  and  Specific  Gravity  Tables I2mo,  I  25 

Alexeyeff's  General  Principles  of  Organic  Syntheses.     (Matthews.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Allen's  Tables  for  Iron  Analysis 8vo,  3  oo 

Arnold's  Compendium  of  Chemistry.     (Mandel.) Large  I2mo,  3  50 

Association    of  State  and  National  Food  and  Dairy  Departments,  Hartford 

Meeting,  1906 8vo,  3  oo 

Jamestown  Meeting.  1907 8vo,  3  oo 

Austen's  Notes  for  Chemical  Students I2mo,  I  50 

Baskerville's  Chemical  Elements.     (In  Preparation). 

Bernadou's  Smokeless  Powder. — Nitro-cellulose,  and  Theory  of  the  Cellulose 

Molecule i2mo,  2  50 

*  Blanchard's  Synthetic  Inorganic  Chemistry. I2mo,  i  oo 

*  Browning's  Introduction  to  the  Rarer  Elements 8vo,  i  50 

Brush  and  Penfield's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy 8vo,  4  oo 

*  Claassen's  Beet-sugar  Manufacture.     (Hall  and  Rolfe.^ 8vo,  3  oo 

Classen's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.    (Boltwood.).  .8vo,  3  oo 

Cohn's  Indicators  and  Test-papers I2mo,  2  oo 

Tests  and  Reagents 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Danneel's  Electrochemistry.     (Merriam.) I2mo,  i   25 

Duhem's  Thermodynamics  and  Chemistry.     (Burgess.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Eakle's  Mineral  Tables  for  the  Determination  of  Minerals  by  their  Physical 

Properties 8vo,  i  25 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

Effront's  Enzymes  and  their  Applications.     (Prescott.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Erdmann's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Preparations.     (Dunlap.) I2mo,  i   25 

*  Fischer's  Physiology  of  Alimentation Large  I2mo,  a  oo 

Fletcher's  Practical  Instructions  in  Quantitative  Assaying  with  the  Blowpipe. 

I2mo,  mor.  i   50 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses I2mo,  2  oo 

Fresenius's  Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.     (Wells.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  Part  I.  Descriptive.  (Wells.)  8vo,  3  oo 

Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis.     (Cohn.)     2  vols &vo.,  12  50 

When  Sold  Separately,  Vol.  I,  $6.     Vol.  II,  $8. 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health I2mo,  I  50 

Furman's  Manual  of  Practical  Assaying 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Getman's  Exercises  in  Physical  Chemistry I2mo:  2  oo 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers I2mo,  i  25 

*  Gooch  and  Browning's  Outlines  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

Large  i2mo,  i   25 

Grotenfelt's  Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice.     (Woll.) i2mo,  2  oo 

Groth's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography  (Marshall) I2mo,  i  25 

Hammarsten's  Text-book  of  Physiological  Chemistry.     (MandeL) 8vo,  4  oo 

Hanausek's  Microscopy  of  Technical  Products.     (Winton.) 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Haskins  and  Macleod's  Organic  Chemistry I2mo,  2  oo 

Helm's  Principles  of  Mathematical  Chemistry.     (Morgan.) I2mo,  i  50 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  mor.  2  50 

*  Herrick's  Denatured  or  Industrial  Alcohol 8vo,  4  oo 

Hinds's  Inorganic  Chemistry 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Laboratory  Manual  for  Students I2mo,  i  oo 

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(Walker.) I2mo,  i  oo 

Text-book  of  Inorganic  Chemistry.     (Cooper.) 8vo,  2  50 

Text-book  of  Organic  Chemistry.     (Walker  and  Mott.) 8vo,  2  50 

Honey  and  Ladd's  Analysis  of  Mixed  Paints,  Color  Pigments,  and  Varnishes. 

Large  12  mo  2  50 
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Hopkins's  Oil-chemists'  Handbook Svo,  3  oo 

Iddings's  Rock  Minerals " Svo,  5  oo 

Jackson's  Directions  for  Laboratory  Work  in  Physiological  Chemistry.  .8vo,  I  25 

Johannsen's  Determination  of  Rock-forming  Minerals  in  Tiiin  Sections..  .8vo,  4  oo 

keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Ladd's  Manual  of  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis I2mo,  i  oo 

.Landauer's  Spectrum  Analysis.     (Tingle.) 8vo,  3  oo 

*  i^.ingworthy  and   Austen's   Occurrence   of  Aluminium  in  Vege'.able  Prod- 

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Lassar-Cohn's  Application  of  Some  General  Reactions  to  Investigations  in 

Organic  Chemistry.  (Tingle.) I2mo,  i  oo 

Leach's  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control. Svo,  7  50 

Lob's  Electrochemistry  of  Organic  Compounds.  (Lorenz.) Svo,  3  oo 

Lodge's  Notes  on  Assaying  and  Metallurgical  Laboratory  Experiments. ..  .Svo,  3  oo 

Low's  Technical  Method  of  Ore  Analysis Svo,  3  oo 

Lunge's  Techno-chemical  Analysis.  (Cohn.) I2mo  i  oo 

*  McKay  and  Larsen's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-rcaking Svo,  i  50 

Maire's  Modern  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles izmo,  2  oo 

Mandel's  Handbook  for  Bio-chemical  Laboratory 12010,  i  50 

*  Martin's  Laboratory  Guide  to  Qualitative  Analysis  with  the  Blowpipe .  .  I2mo,  60 
Mason's  Examination  of  Water.     (Chemical  and  Bacteriological.).  .  .  .i2mo,  i  25 

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Matthews's  The  Textile  Fibres.   2d  Edition,  Rewritten 8vo,  4  oo 

Meyer's  Determination  of  Radicles  in  Carbon  Compounds.     (Tingle.).  .I2rno,  i  oo 

Miller's  Cyanide  Process I2mo,  i  oo 

Manual  of  Assaying I2mo,  i  oo 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.     (Waldo.).  .  .  .  I2mo,  2  50- 

Mixter's  Elementary  Text-book  of  Chemistry I2mo,  i  50 

Morgan's  Elements  of  Physical  Chemistry I2mo,  3  co 

Outline  of  the  Theory  of  Solutions  and  its  Results. I2mo,  i  oo 

*  Physical  Chemistry  for  Electrical  Engineers I2mo,  i   50 

Morse's  Calculations  used  in  Cane-sugar  Factories i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

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Mullik«n's  General  Method  for  the  Identification  of  Pure  Organic  Compounds. 

VoL  I Large  Svo,  5  oo 

O'Driscoll's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores Svo,  2  oo 

Ostwald's  Conversations  on  Chemistry.     Part  One.     (Ramsey.) I2mo,  i  50 

"                   "              "           "             Part  Two.     (TurnbulL) i2mo,  2  oo 

*  Palmer's  Practical  Test  Book  of  Chemistry i2mo,  i  oo 

*  Pauli's  Physical  Chemistry  in  the  Service  of  Medicine.     (Fischer.  1 ....  i2mo,  i   25 

*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Mineral  Tests. 

Svo,  paper,  50 
Tables   of  Minerals,  Including  the   Use   of  Minerals  and  Statistic  of 

Domestic  Production Svo,  i  oo 

Pictet's  Alkaloids  and  their  Chemical  Constitution.     (Biddle.) 8<ro,  5  oo 

Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels Svo,  3  oo 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Sanitary  Water  Analysis i2!ro,  i  50 

*  Reisig's  Guide  to  Piece-dyeing Svo,  25  oo 

Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint. . 8vo ,  2  oo 

Ricketts  and  Miller's  Notes  on  Assaying Svo,  3  oo 

Rideal's  Disinfection  and  the  Preservation  of  Food Svo,  4  oo 

Sewage  and  the  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo,  4  oo 

Riggs's  Elementary  Manual  for  the  Chemical  Laboratory Svo,  r  25 

Robine  and  Lenglen's  Cyanide  Industry.  (Le  Clerc.) Svo,  4  oo 

Ruddiman's  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions Svo,  2  oo 

Whys  in  Pharmacy I2mo,  r  oo 


Ruer's  Elements  of  Metallography.     (Mathewson).     (In  Preparation.  1 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish.  .: 8vo,  3  oo 

Salkowski's  Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry.     (Orndorff.) 8vo,  2  50 

Schimpf's  Essentials  of  Volumetric  Analysis izmo,  i   25 

*  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis '. 8vo,  i   25 

Text-book  of  Volumetric  Analysis I2mo,  2  50 

Smith's  Lecture  Notes  on  Chemistry  for  Dental  Students .  .8vo,  2  50 

Spencer's  Handbook  for  Cane  Sugar  Manufacturers i6mo,  mor.  3  oo 

Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses i6mo,  mor.  3  oo 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo,  2  50 

*  Tillman's  Descriptive  General  Chemistry 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat 8vo,  i   50 

Treadwell's  Qualitative  Analysis.     (Hall.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Quantitative  Analysis.     (Hall.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo.  5  oo 

Van  Deventer's  Physical  Chemistry  for  Beginners.     (Boltwood.) I2mo,  i  50 

Venable's  Methods  and  Devices  for  Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage 8vo;  3  oo 

Ward  and  Whipple's  Freshwater  Biology.     (In  Press.) 

Ware's  Beet-sugar  Manufacture  and  Refining.     Vol.  I Small  8vo,  4  oo 

Vol.  II SmallSvo,  5  ro 

Washington's  Manual  of  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Rocks 8vo,  2  oo 

*  Weaver's  Military  Explosives 8vo,  3  oo 

Wells's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  i  50 

Short  Course  in  Inorganic  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis  for  Engineering 

Students I2mo,  i  50 

Text-book  of  Chemical  Arithmetic I2mo,  i  25 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3  50 

Wilson's  Chlorination  Process I2mo  i  53 

Cyanide  Processes I2mo  i  50 

Winton's  Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods 8vo  7  50 


CIVIL   ENGINEERING. 

BRIDGES  AND  ROOFS.     HYDRAULICS.     MATERIALS   OF    ENGINEER- 
ING.    RAILWAY   ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Engineers'  Surveying  Instruments I2mo,  3  oo 

Bixby's  Graphical  Computing  Table Paper  19^X24^  inches.  25 

Breed  and  Hosmer's  Principles  and  Practice  of  Surveying 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal 8vo,  3  50 


Comstock's  Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers 8vo, 

*  Corthell's  Allowable  Pressures  on  Deep  Foundations I2mo, 

Crandall's  Text-book  on  Geodesy  and  Least  Squares 8vo, 

Davis's  Elevation  and  Stadia  Tables 8vo, 

Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage I2mo, 

Practical  Farm  Drainage I2tno, 

*Fiebeger's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering 8vo, 

Flemer's  Phototopographic  Methods  and  Instruments 8vo, 

FolwelTs  Sewerage.     (Designing  and  Maintenance.) 8vo, 

Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering 8vo, 

French  and  Ives's  Stereotomy 8vo, 

Goodhue's  Municipal  Improvements I2mo, 

Gore's  Elements  of  Geodesy 8vo, 

*  Hauch  and  Rice's  Tables  of  Quantities  for  Preliminary  Estimates, I2mo, 

Hayford's  Text-book  of  Geodetic  Astronomy 8vo, 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  mor. 

Howe's  Retaining  Walls  for  Earth I2mo, 


*  Ives's  Adjustments  of  the  Engineer's  Transit  and  Level i6mo,  Bds  25 

Ives  and  Hilts's  Problems  in  Surveying ,6mO(  mor'  ,  5O 

Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying Small  8vo',  4  oo 

Johnson's  (L.  J.)  Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods 8vo',  2  oo 

Kinnicutt,  Winslow  and  Pratt's  Purification  of  Sewage.     (In  Preparation). 
Laplace's    Philosophical    Essay    on    Probabilities.       (Truscott    and   Emory.) 

I2mo,  2  oo 

Mahan's  Descriptive  Geometry gvo  T  _o 

Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering.     (1873.)     (Wood.) 8vo!  5  oo 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Precise  Surveying  and  Geodesy. 8vo|  2  50 

Merriman  and  Brooks's  Handbook  for  Surveyors i6mo,  mor.  I  oo 

Morrison's  Elements  of  Highway  Engineering.       (In  Press.) 

Nugent's  Plane  Surveying 8vOj  3  go 

Ogden's  Sewer  Design 12mo>  2  oo 

Parsons's  Disposal  of  Municipal  Refuse 8vo,  2  oo 

Patton's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  half  leather,  7  50 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to,  5  oo 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  the  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo,  4  oo 

Riemer's  Shaft-sinking  under  Difficult  Conditions.     (Corning  and  Peele.) .  .svo,  3  oo 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone-cutting  and  Masonry Svo,  I  50 

Smith's  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.     (McMillan.) 8vo,  2  50 

Soper's  Air  and  Ventilation  of  Subways.     (In  Press.) 

Tracy's  Plane  Surveying I6mo,  mor.  3  oo 

*  Trautwine's  Civi-1  Engineer's  Pocket-book i6mo,  mor.  5  oo 

Venable's  Garbage  Crematories  in  America Svo,  2  oo 

Methods  and  Devices  for  Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage Svo,  3  oo 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence Svo,  6  oo 

Sheep,  6  50 

Law  of  Contracts Svo,  3  oo 

Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  '.o  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture  Svo,  5  oo 

Sheep,  5  50 

Warren's  Stereotomy — Problems  in  Stone-cutting Svo,  2  50 

*  Waterbury's  Vest-Pocket  Hand-book   of    Mathematics   for   Engineers. 

2;  Xs3  inches,  mor.  I   oo 
Webb's  Problems  in  the  Use  and  Adjustment  of  Engineering  Instruments. 

i6mo,  mor.  i  25 

Wilson's  Topographic  Surveying 8vo,  3  so 

BRIDGES  AND  ROOFS. 

Boiler's  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Iron  Highway  Bridges   .Svo,  2  oo 

Burr  and  Falk's  Design  and  Construction  of  Metallic  Bridges Svo,  5  oo 

Influence  Lines  for  Bridge  and  Roof  Computations Svo,  3  oo 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.     VoL  II Small  4to,  10  oo 

Foster's  Treatise  on  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges 4to,  5  oo 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations Svo,  3  50 

French  and  Ives's  Stereotomy Svo,  2  50 

Greene's  Arches  in  Wood,  Iron,  and  Stone. Svo,  2  50 

Bridge  Trusses Svo,  2  50 

Roof  Trusses 8vo,  I  25 

Grimm's  Secondary  Stresses  in  Bridge  Trusses Svo,  2  50 

Heller's  Stresses  in  Structures  and  the  Accompanyin  •  Deformations Svo, 

Howe's  Design  of  Simple  Roof-trusses  in  Wood  and  Steel Svo,  2  oo 

Symmetrical  Masonry  Arches Svo,  2  50 

Treatise  on  Arches ...  Svo,  4  oo 

Johnson,  Bryan,  and  Turneaure's  Theory  and  Practice  in  the  Designing  of 

Modern  Framed  Structures Small  4to,  10  oo 

7 


Merriman  and  Jacoby's  Text-book  on  Roofs  and  Bridges : 

Part  I.      Stresses  in  Simple  Trusses 8vo,  2  50 

Part  II.    Graphic  Statics 8vo,  2  50 

Part  HI.  Bridge  Design 8vo,  2  50 

Part  IV.   Higher  Structures 8vo,  2  50 

Morison's  Memphis  Bridge . . .  Oblong  4to,  10  oo 

Sondericker's  Graphic  Statics,  with  Applications  to  Trusses,  Beams,  and  Arches. 

8vo,  2  oo 

Waddell's  De  Pontibus,  Pocket-book  for  Bridge  Engineers i6mo,  mor,  2  oo 

*          Specifications  for  Steel  Bridges I2mo,  50 

Waddell  and  Harrington's  Bridge  Engineering.     (In  Preparation.) 

Wright's  Designing  of  Draw-spans.     Two  parts  in  one  volume 8vo,  3  50 


HYDRAULICS. 

Barnes's  Ice  Formation 8vo,  3  oo 

Bazin's  Experiments  upon  the  Contraction  of  the  Liquid  Vein  Issuing  from 

an  Orifice.     (Trautwine.) 8vo,  2  oo 

Bovey's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  5  oo 

Church's  Diagrams  of  Mean  Velocity  of  Water  in  Open  Channels. 

Oblong  4to,  paper,  r   50 

Hydraulic  Motors 8vo,  2  oo 

Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Coffin's  Graphical  Solution  of  Hydraulic  Problems i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power i2mo,  3  oo 

Folwell's  Water-supply  Engineering 8vo,  4  oo 

Frizell's  Water-power 8vo,  5  oo 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health I2mo,  i  50 

Water-filtration  Works I2mo,  2  50 

Ganguillet  and  Kutter's  General  Formula  for  the  Uniform  Flow  of  Water  in 

Rivers  and  Other  Channels.     (Hering  and  Trautwine.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Hazen's  Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It Large  I2mo,  i  5o 

Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  3  oo 

Hazlehurst's  Towers  and  Tanks  for  Water- works 8vo,  2  50 

HerschePs  115  Experiments  on  the  Carrying  Capacity  of  Large,  Riveted,  Metal 

Conduits 8vo ,  200 

Hoyt  and  Grover's  River  Discharge 8vo,  2  oo 

Hubbard  and  Kiersted's  Water-works  Management  and  Maintenance 8vo,  4  co 

*  Lyndon's  Development  and  Electrical  Distribution  of  Wa':er  Power.  .  .  .8vo,  3  oo 
Masonts  Water-supply.     (Considered  Principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint.) 

8vo,  4  oo 

Merriman's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Molitor's  Hydraulics  of  Rivers,  Weirs  and  Sluices,     i  In  Press. ) 

Schuyler's   Reservoirs   for  Irrigation,   Water-power,  and   Domestic   Water- 
supply.  ...                       Large  8vo,  5  oo 

*  Thomas  and  Watt's  Improvement  of  Rivers 4to,  6  oo 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  5  oo 

Wegmann's  Design  and  Construction  of  Dams.     5th  Ed.,  enlarged 4to,  6  oo 

Water-supply  of  the  City  of  New  York  from  1658  to  1895 4to,  10  oo 

Whipple's  Value  of  Pure  Water Large  I2mo,  i  oo 

Williams  and  Hazen's  Hydraulic  Tables 8vo,  i  50 

Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering Small  8vo,  4  oo 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  oo 

Turbines 8vo,  2  50 


MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Roads  and  Pavements 8vo,    5  oo 

Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction 8vo,    5  oo 

Birkmire's  Architectural  Iron  and  Steel 8vo,     3  50 

Compound  Riveted  Girders  as  Applied  in  Buildings 8vo,    2  oo 

Black's  United  States  Public  Works Oblong  4*0,    5  oo 

Bleininger's  Manufacture  of  Hydraulic  Cement.     (In  Preparation.) 

*  Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,    7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering 8vo,    7  50 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction 8vo,     5  oo 

Inspection  of  the  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction. 

i6mo,    3  oo 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,    6  oo 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering. 

Vol.    I.  Kinematics,  Statics,  Kinetics Small  4to,    7  50 

Vol.  II.  The  Stresses  in  Framed  Structures,  Strength  of  Materials  and 

Theory  of  Flexures Small  4to,  10  oo 

*Eckel's  Cements,  Limes,  and  Plasters 8vo,    6  oo 

Stone  and  Clay  Products  used  in  Engineering.     (In  Preparation.) 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations 8vo,    3  50 

Graves's  Forest  Mensuration 8vo,    4  oo 

Green's  Principles  of  American  Forestry izmo,     i   *o 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics 8vo,    2  50 

Holly  and  Ladd's  Analysis  of  Mixed  Paints,  Color  Pigments  and  Varnishes 

Large  izmo,    2  50 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction Large  8vo,    6  oo 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,    2  50 

Kidder's  Architects  and  Builders'  Pocket-book i6mo,    5  oo 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,    7  So 

Maire's  Modern  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles lamo,    2  oo 

Martens's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.)     2  vols 8vo,    7  5« 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,    4  oo 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,    5  oo 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,    5  oo 

*  Strength  of  Materials I2mo,     I  oo 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users izmo,    2  oo 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations 8vo,    5  oo 

Rice's  Concrete  Block  Manufacture 8vo,    2  oo 

Richardson's  Modern  Asphalt  Pavements.  .  8vo,    3  oo 

Richey's  Handbook  for  Superintendents  of  Co    -T-     uon i6mo,  mor.,    4  oo 

*  Ries's  Clays:  Their  Occurrence,  Properties,  ana  Jses 8vo,    5  oo 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo,    3  oo 

*  Schwarz's  Longleaf  Pine  in  Virgin  Forest  izmo,     i  25 

Snow's  Principal  Species  of  Wood 8vo,    3  5<> 

Spalding's  Hydraulic  Cement • nmo,    2  oo 

Text-book  on  Roads  and  Pavements.    .  .  I2mo,    2  oo 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo,    5  oo 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     In  Three  Parts. ...  8vo,    8  oo 

Part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering  and  Metallurgy 8vo,    2  oo 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel •   8vo>    3  5<> 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo>    2  5<> 

Tillson's  Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials 8vo,    4  oo 

Tumeaure  and  Maurer's  Principles  of  Reinforced  Concrete  Construction..    8vo,     3  oo 
Wood's  (De  V.^  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials,  and  an  Appendix  on 

the  Preservation  of  Timber 

Wood's  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel 8vo-    400 

9 


RAILWAY  ENGINEERING. 

Andrews's  Handbook  for  Street  Railway  Engineers 3x5  inches,  mor.  i  25 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads .  .  .  . 4to,  5  oo 

Brooks  "s  Handbook  of  Street  Railroad  Location i6mb,  mor.  I  50 

Butt's  Civil  Engineer's  Field-book i6mo,  mor.  2  50 

Crandall's  Railway  and  Other  Earthwork  Tables 8vo,  i  50 

Transition  Curve i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

*  Crockett's  Methods  for  Earthwork  Computations 8vo,  i  50 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book i6mo.  mor.  5  oo 

Dredge's  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad:   (1879) Paper,  5  oo 

Fisher's  Table  of  Cubic  Yards Cardboard,  25 

Godwin's  Railroad  Engineers'  Field-book  and  Explorers'  Guide.  .  .  i6mo,.mor.  2  50 
Hudson's  Tables  for  Calculating  the  Cubic  Contents  of  Excavations  and  Em- 
bankment*  8vo,  i  oo 

Ives   and  Hilts'c   Problems   in  Surveying,  Railroad   Surveying  and  Geodesy 

i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

Molitor  and  Beard's  Manual  for  Resident  Engineers i6mo,  i  oo 

N^gle's  Fieid  Manual  for  Railroad  Engineers i6mo,  mor.  3  oo 

Philbnck's  Field  Manual  for  Engineers i6mo,  mor.  3  oo 

Raymond's  Railroad  Engineering.     3  volumes. 

Vol.      I.  Railroad  Field  Geometry.     (In  Preparation.) 

Vol.    II.  Elements  of  Railroad  Engineering 8vo,  3  50 

Vol   III    Railroad  Engineer's  Field  Book.     (In  Preparation.) 

Searles's  Field  Engineering i6mo,  mor.  3  oo 

Railroad  Spiral. i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

Taylor's  Prismoidal  Formulae  and  Earthwork .  .8vo,  i  50 

*Trautwine's  Field  Practice  of  Laying   Out  Circular  Curves   for  Railroads. 

i2mo.  mor,  2  50 

*  Method  of  Calculating  the  Cubic  Contents  of  Excavations  and  Embank- 

ments by  the  Aid  of  Diagrams 8vo,  2  oo 

Webb's  Economics  of  Railroad  Construction Large  I2mo,  2  50 

Railroad  Construction i6mo,  mor.  5  oo 

Wellington's  Economic  Theory  of  the  Location  of  Railways Small  8vo,  5  oo 

DRAWING. 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  oo 

*  "                    "               "             Abridged  Ed. 8vo,  150 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper,  i  oo 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers  Oblong  410,  2  50 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  oo 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Project! ve  Geometry  and  its  Applications Svo,  2  50 

Hill's  Text-book  on  Shades  and  Shadows,  and  Perspective Svo,  2  oo 

Jamison's  Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing Svo,  2  oo 

Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Svo,  2  50 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery Svo,  i  50 

Part  n.    Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts Svo,  3  oo 

MacCord's  Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry Svo,  3  oc 

Kinematics;   or,  Practical  Mechanism Svo,  5  oo 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to,  4  oo 

Velocity  Diagrams Svo,  i  50 

McLeod's  Descriptive  Geometry Large  I2mo,  i  50 

*  Mahan's  Descriptive  Geometry  and  Stone-cutting Svo,  i  50 

Industrial  Drawing.     (Thompson.) Svo,  3  50 

10 


Moyer's  Descriptive  Geometry gvo>  2  oo 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to,  5  oo 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing .8vo,  2  oo 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  oo 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  (R.  S.)  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.     (McMillan.) 8vo|  2  50 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  Machine  Design 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Titsworth's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Oblong  8vo,  i  25 

Warren's  Drafting  Instruments  and  Operations i2mo,  i  25 

Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry,  Shadows,  and  Perspective 8vo,  3  *o 

Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  50 

Elements  of  Plane  and  Solid  Free-band  Geometrical  Drawing.  .  . .  i  .2mo,  i  oo 

General  Problems  of  Shades  and  Shadows 8vo,  3  oo 

Manual  of  Elementary  Problems  in  the  Linear  Perspective  of  Form  and 

Shadow 12010,  i  oo 

Manual  of  Elementary  Projection  Drawing I2mo,  i  50 

Plane  Problems  in  Elementary  Geometry I2mo,  i  25 

Problems,  Theorems,  and  Examples  in  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  2  50 

Weisbach's    Kinematics    and    Power    of    Transmission.        (Hermann    and 

Klein.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Wilson's  (H.  M.)  Topographic  Surveying , 8vo,  3  50 

Wilson's  (V.  T.)  Free-hand  Lettering 8vo,  i  oo 

Free-hand  Perspective. 8vo,  2  50 

Woolf's  Elementary  Course  in  Descriptive  Geometry Large  8vo,  3  oo 

ELECTRICITY  AND  PHYSICS. 

*  Abegg's  Theory  of  Electrolytic  Dissociation,     (von  Ende.) i2mo,  i   25 

Andrews's  Hand-Book  for  Street  Railway  Engineering  ...  .3X5  inches,  mor.,  i  i  25 

Anthony  and  Brackett's  Text-book  of  Physics.     (Magie.) Large  i2mo,  3  oo 

Anthony's  Lecture-notes  on  the  Theory  of  Electrical  Measurements.  .  .  .I2mo,  i  oo 

Benjamin's  History  of  Electricity 8vo,  3  oo 

Voltaic  Cell 8vo,  3  oo 

Betts's  Lead  Refining  and  Electrolysis 8vo,  4  oo 

Classen's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.     (Boltwood.).8vo,  3  oo 

*  Collins's  Manual  of  Wireless  Telegraphy I2mo,  i  50 

Mor.  2  oo 

Crehore  and  Squier's  Polarizing  Photo-chronograph 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Danneel's  Electrochemistry.     (Merriam.) I2mo,  r  25 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book i6mo,  mor  5  oo 

Dolezalek's  Theory  of  the  Lead  Accumulator  (Storage  Battery),    (von  Ende.) 

I2mo,  2  50 

Duhem's  Thermodynamics  and  Chemistry.     (Burgess.) 8vo,  4  co 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power I2mo,  3  co 

Gilbert's  De  Magnete.     (Mottelay.) 8vo,  2  50 

*  Hanchett's  Alternating  Currents I2mo,  i  oo 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  mor.  2  50 

Hobart  and  Ellis's  High-speed  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery.     (In  Press.) 

Holman's  Precision  of  Measurements 8vo,  2  oo 

Telescopic   Mirror-scale  Method,  Adjustments,  and   Tests.  .  .  .Large  8vo,  75 

*  Karapetoff's  Experimental  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Kinzbrunner's  Testing  of  Continuous-current  Machines 8vo,  2  oo 

Landauer's  Spectrum  Analysis.     (Tingle.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Le  Chatelier's  High-temperature  Measurements.  (Boudouard— Burgess.)  I2mo,  3  oo 

Lob's  Electrochemistry  of  Organic  Compounds.     (Lorenz.) 8vo,  3  oo 

*  London's  Development  and  Electrical  Distribntion  of  Water  Fower  .  .  .  .8vo,  3  oo 

*  Lyons's  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena.   Vols.  I.  and  II.  8vo,  each,  6  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Wave  Motion  Relating  to  Sound  and  Light 8vo,  4  ot> 

11 


Morgan's  Outline  of  the  Theory  of  Solution  and  its  Results izmo,  i  oo 

*  Physical  Chemistry  for  Electrical  Engineers 12  mo,  i  50 

Niautlet's  Elementary  Treatise  on  Electric  Batteries.     (Fishback) ..  .  .  I2mo.  2   50 

*  Norris's  Introduction  to  the  Study   of  Electrical  Engineering Svo,  2  50 

*  Parshall  and  Hobart's  Electric  Machine  Design 4to,  half  morocco,  12   50 

Reagan's  Locomotives:    Simple,  Compound,  and  Electric.      New  Edition. 

Large  12 mo,  3  50 

*  Rosenberg's  Electrical  Engineering.     (Haldane  Gee — Kinzbrunner.).  .  .8vo,  2  oo 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Electrical  Machinery.     Vol.  1 8vo,  2  50 

Swapper's  Laboratory  Guide  for  Students  in  Physical  Chemistry i2mo,  i  oo 

Thurston's  Stationary  Steam-engines 8vo,  2  50 

*  Tillman's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat 8vo,  i  50 

Tory  and  Pitcher's  Manual  of  Laboratory  Physics. Large  I2mo,  2  oo 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining Svo,  3  oo 

LAW. 

*  Davis's  Elements  of  Law Svo,  2  50 

*  Treatise  on  the  Military  Law  of  United  States. Svo,  7  oo 

*  Sheep,  7  50 

*  Dudley's  Military  Law  and  the  Procedure  cf  Courts-martial  .  .  .  .Large  i2mo,  2  50 

Manual  for  Courts-martial i6mo,  mor.  i  50 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence Svo,  6  oo 

Sheep,  6  50 

Law  of  Contracts Svo,  3  oo 

Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture  Svo  5  oo 

Sheep,  5  50 
MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's  Elliptic  Functions Svo,  i   50 

Briggs's  Elements  of  Plane  Analytic  Geometry.    (Bocher) i  2mo.  i  oo 

*  Buchanan's  Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry Svo,  i  oo 

Byerley's  Harmonic  Functions .Svo,  i   oo 

Chandler's  Elements  of  the  Infinitesimal  Calculus i2mo,  2  oo 

Compton's  Manual  of  Logarithmic  Computations 1 2mo,  i   50 

Davis's  Introduction  to  the  Logic  of  Algebra Svo,  i   50 

*  Dickson's  College  Algebra Large  I2mo,  i   50 

*  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Algebraic  Equations Large  i2mo,  i   25 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Applications Svo,  2  50 

Fiske's  Functions  of  a  Complex  Variable Svo,  i  oo 

Halsted's  Elementary  Synthetic  Geometry Svo,  i   50 

Elements  of  Geometry Svo,  i   75 

*  Rational  Geometry 1 2mo,  i   50 ' 

Hyde's  Grassmann's  Space  Analysis Svo,  i  oo 

*  Jonnson's  (.J   B.)  Three-place  Logarithmic  Tables:  Vest-pocket  size,  paper,         15 

100  copies,  5  oo 

*  Mounted  on  heavy  cardboard,  8  X 10  inches,         25 

10  copies,  2  oo 
Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Abridged  Editions  of  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus 

Large  i2mo,  r  vol.  2  50 

Curve  Tracing  in  Cartesian  Co-ordinates 121110,  i  oo 

Differential  Equations Svo,  i  oo 

Elementary  Treatise  ^a  Differential  Calculus.     (In  Press.) 

Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus Large  i2mo->  i  50 

*  Theoretical  Mechanics I2mo,  3  oo 

Theory  of  Errors  and  the  Method  of  Least  Squares I2mo,  i   50 

Treatise  on  Differential  Calculus Large  I2mo,  3  oo 

Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus Large  i2mo,  3  oo 

Treatise  on  Ordinary  and  Partial  Differential  Equations. .  Large  I2mo,  3  50 

12 


taplace's  Philosophical  Essay  on  Probabilities.     (Truscott  and  Emory.). I2mo,     a  oo 

*  Ludlow  and  Bass's  Elements  of  Trigonometry  and  Logarithmic  and  Other 

Tables 8vo,     3  oo 

Trigonometry  and  Tables  published  separately Each,     2  oo 

*  Ludlow's  Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables 8vo,     i  oo 

Macfarlane's  Vector  Analysis  and  Quaternions 8vo,    i  oo 

McMahon's  Hyperbolic  Functions 8vo,     i   oo 

Manning's  IrrationalNumbers  and  their  Representation  bySequences  and  Series 

izmo,     i  25 
Mathematical  Monographs.     Edited  by  Mansfield  Merriman  and  Robert 

S.  Woodward Octavo,  each    i  oo 

No.  i.  History  of  Modern  Mathematics,  by  David  Eugene  Smith. 
No.  2.  Synthetic  Projective  Geometry,  by  George  Bruce  Halsted. 
No.  3.  Determinants,  by  Laenas  Gifford  Weld.  No.  4.  Hyper- 
bolic Functions,  by  James  McMahon.  Ko.  5.  Harmonic  Func- 
tions, by  William  E.  Byerly.  No.  6.  Grassmann's  Space  Analysis, 
by  Edward  W.  Hyde.  No.  7.  Probability  and  Theory  of  Errors, 
by  Robert  S.  Woodward.  No.  8.  Vector  Analysis  and  Quaternions, 
by  Alexander  Macfarlane.  No.  9.  Differential  Equations,  by 
William  Woolsey  Johnson.  No.  10.  The  Solution  of  Equations, 
by  Mansfield  Merriman.  No.  n.  Functions  of  a  Complex  Variable, 
by  Thomas  S.  Fiskc. 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,    4  oo 

Metilman's  Method  of  Least  Squares 8vo,    2  oo 

Solution  of  Equations 8vo,    i  oo 

Rice  and  Johnson's  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus.     2  vols.  In  one. 

Large  i2mo,     i  50 

Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential  Calculus Large  I2mo.     3  oo 

Smith's  History  of  Modern  Mathematics 8vo,    i  oo 

*  Veblen  and  Lennes's  Introduct'on  to  the  Real  Infinitesimal  Analysis  of  One 

Variable 8vo,    2  oo 

*  Waterbury's  Vest  Pocket  Hand-Book  of  Mathematics  for  Engine- rs. 

2-J-X  5i!  inches,  mor.,    i  oo 

Weld's  Determinations 8vo,    i  oo 

Wood's  Elements  of  Co-ordinate  Geometry 8vo,    2  oo 

Woodward's  Probability  and  Theory  of  Errors 8vo,    i  oo 

MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING. 
MATERIALS   OF   ENGINEERING,  STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

.Bacon's  Forge  Practice I2mo,  i  50 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings tamo,  2  50 

Bair's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  oo 

*  "  "  "        Abridged  Ed 8vo,    150 

Benjamin's  Wrinkles  and  Recipes I2mo,    2  oo 

*  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal 8vo,    3  50 

Carpenter's  Experimental  Engineering 8vo,    6  oo 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings 8vo,  4  oo 

Clerk's  Gas  and  Oil  Engine Large  I2mo,  4  oo 

Compton's  First  Lessons  in  Metal  Working izmo,  i  50 

Compton  and  De  Groodt's  Speed  Lathe 12mo,  i  50 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper,  i  oo 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  En- 
gineers  Oblong  4to,  2  50 

Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys I2mo,  i  50 

Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing I2mo,  i  50 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  oo 

13 


Flather's  Dynamometers  and  the  Measurement  of  Power, i2mo,  3  oo 

Rope  Driving I2mo,  2  o° 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers izrno,  i  25 

Goss'-,  Locomotive  Sparks 8vo,  2  oo 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication I2mo,  i  oo 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) ....  i6mo,  mor.,  2  50 

Hobart  and  El.is's  High  Speed  Dynamo  Electric  Machinery.     (In  Press.) 

Button's  Gas  Engine : 8vo,  5  oo 

Jamison's  Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing. 8vo,  2  oo 

Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  50 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts 8vo,  3  oo 

Kent's  Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket-book ..i6mo,  mor  ,  5  oo 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission 8vo,  2  oo 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop  Tools  and  Methods' 8vo,  4  oo 

*  Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.    (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean.)  .  .8vo,  4  oo 
MacCord's  Kinematics;   or,  Practical  Mechanism • .  .  .8vo,  5  oo 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to,  4  oo 

Velocity  Diagrams 8vo,  i  50 

MacFarland's  Standard  Reduction  Factors  for  Gases 8vo,  i  50 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.   '(Thompson.) 8vo,  3  50 

*  Parshall  andJ3obart's  Electric  Machine  Design Small  4to,  half  leather,  12  50 

Peele's  Compressed  Air  Plant  for  Mines.     (In  Press.) 

Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 8vo,  3  oo 

*  Porter's  Engineering  Reminiscences,  1855  to  1882 8vo,  3  oo 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  oo 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  oo 

Richard's  Compressed  Air I2mo,  i  50 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  (O.)  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith  (A.  W.)  and  Marx's  Machine  Design 8vo,  3  oo 

Thurston's  Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws  of  Energetics. 

i2mo,  i  oo 

Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Work  in  Machinery  and  Mill  Work...  8vo,  3  oo 

Tillson's  Complete  Automobile  Instructor i6mo,  i  50 

mor.,  3  oo 

*  Titsworth's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing Oblong  8vo,  i   25 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  50 

*  Waterbury's  Vest  Pocket  Hand  Book  of  Mathematics  for  Engineers. 

2£X  5i  inches,  mor.,  i  oo 
Weisbach's    Kinematics    and    the    Power    of    Transmission.     (Herrmann — 

Klein.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.     (Herrmann — Klein.).  .8vc,  5  oo 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood's  Turbines 8vo,  2  50 

MATERIALS   OF   ENGINEERING. 

*  Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,  7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering 8vo,  7  50 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics 8vo,  2  50 

Holley  and  Ladd's  Analysis  of  Mixed  Paints,  Color  Pigments,  and  Varnishes. 

Large  izmo,  2  50 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  6  oo 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

14 


Maire's  Modern  Pigments  and  their  Vehicles I2mo,  2  oo 

Martens's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.) 8vo,  7  50 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics : Svo,  4  oo 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  5  oo 

*         Strength  of  Materials i2mo,  i  oo 

Metcalf' s  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users I2mo,  2  oo 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish Svo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines .  12010,  i  oo 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering 3  vols.,  Svo,  8  oo 

Part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering,  see  Civil  Engineering, 
page  9. 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel Svo,  3  50 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents Svo,  2  50 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics Svo,  3  oo 

Treatise  on    the    Resistance    of    Materials  and    an  Appendix  on  the 

Preservation  of  Timber Svo,  2  oo 

Wood's  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel Svo,  4  oo 

STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

Berry's  Temperature-entropy  Diagram I2mo,  i  25 

Carnot's  Reflections  on  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat.     (Thurston.) I2mo,  i  50 

Chase's  Art  of  Pattern  Making I2mo,  2  50 

Creighton's  Steam-engine  and  other  Heat-motors Svo,  500 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  . .  .  i6mo,  mor.,  5  oo 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers iSmo,  i  oo 

Goss's  Locomotive  Performance Svo,  5  oo 

Hemenway's  Indicator  Practice  and  Steam-engine  Economy I2mo,  2  oo 

Button's  Heat  and  Heat-engines Svo,  5  oo 

Mechanical  Engineering  of  Power  Plants Svo,  5  oo 

Kent's  Steam  boiler  Economy Svo,  4  oo 

Kneass's  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Injector Svo,  i  50 

MacCord's  Slide-valves Svo,  2  oo 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction 4to,  10  oo 

Moyer's  Steam  Turbines.     (In  Press.) 

Peabody's  Manual  of  the  Steam-engine  Indicator I2mo,  i  50 

Tables  of  the  Properties  of  Saturated  Steam  and  Other  Vapors    Svo,  i  oo 

Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam-engine  and  Other  Heat-engines Svo,  5  oo 

Valve-gears  for  Steam-engines Svo,  2  50 

Peabody  and  Miller's  Steam-boilers Svo,  4  oo 

Fray's  Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator Large  Svo,  a  50 

Pupin's  Thermodynamics  of  Reversible  Cycles  in  Gases  and  Saturated  Vapors. 

(Osterberg.) I2mo,  i  25 

Reagan's  Locomotives:    Simple,  Compound,  and  Electric.     New  Edition. 

Large  12 mo,  3  50 

Sinclair's  Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management I2mo,  2  oo 

Smart's  Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice I2mo,  2  50 

Snow's  Steam-boiler  Practice Svo,  3  oo 

Spangler's  Notes  on  Thermodynamics I2mo,  i  oo 

Valve-gears Svo,  2  50 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering Svo,  3  oo 

Thomas's  Steam-turbines Svo,  4  oo 

Thurston's  Handbook  of  Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  the  Use  of  the  Indi- 
cator and  the  Prony  Brake Svo,  5  oo 

Handy  Tables Svo,  i  50 

Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs,  Construction,  and  Operation.. Svo,  5  oo 
15 


Thurston's  Manual  of  the  Steam-engine 2  vols.,  8vo,  10  oo 

Part  L     History,  Structure,  and  Theory 8vo,  6  oo 

Part  II.     Design,  Construction,  and  Operation 8vo,  6  oo 

Stationary  Steam-engines 8vo,  2  50 

Steam-boiler  Explosions  in  Theory  and  in  Practice 12mo,  i  so 

Wehrenfenning's  Analysis  and  Softening  of  Boiler  Feed-water  (Patterson)   8vo,  4  oo 

Weisbach's  Heat,  Steam,  and  Steam-engines.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Whitham's  Steam-engine  Design 8vo,  5  oo 

Wood's  Thermodynamics,  Heat  Motors,  and  Refrigerating  Machines.  .  .8vo,  4  oo 

MECHANICS  PURE  AND  APPLIED. 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics 8vo,  2  oo 

Dana's  Text-booK  of  Elementary  Mechanics  for  Colleges  and  Schools.  .I2mo,  i  50 
Du  Bois's  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics: 

Vol.      I.     Kinematics 8vo,  3  50 

VoL    II.     Statics 8vo,  4  oo 

Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.    I Small  4to,  7  50 

VoL  II Small  4to,  10  oo 

*  Greene's  Structural  Mechanics 8vo,  2  50 

James's  Kinematics  of  a  Point  and  the  Rational  Mechanics  of  a  Particle. 

Large  I2mo,  2  oo 

*  Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics 12mo,  3  oo 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

*  Martin's  Text  Book  on  Mechanics,  VoL  I,  Statics I2mo,  i   25 

Vol.  2,  Kinematics  and  Kinetics  .  .I2mo,     1  50 
Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,    4  oo 

*  Merriman's  Elements  of  Mechanics 12mo,     i  oo 

Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Sanborn's  Mechanics  Problems Large  12mo,  i  50 

ScSwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  oo 

Plinciples  of  Elementary  Mechanics 12mo,    i  25 

MEDICAL. 

Abderhalden's  Physiological  Chemistry  in  Thirty  Lectures.     (Hall  and  Defren). 

(In  Press), 
von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo,     i  oo 

*  Bolduan's  Immune  Sera i2mo,     i  50 

Davenport's  Statistical  Methods  with  Special  Reference  to  Biological  Varia- 
tions   i6mo,  mor. ,     i   50 

Ehrlich's  Collected  Studies  on  Immunity.     (Bolduan.) 8vo,  6  oo 

*  Fischer's  Physiology  of  Alimentation Large  i2mo,  cloth,  2  oo 

de  Fursac's  Manual  of  Psychiatry.     (Rosanoff  and  Collins.) Large  I2mo,  2  50 

Hammarsten's  Text-book  on  Physiological  Chemistry.     (MandeL) 8vo,  4  oo 

Jackson's  Directions  for  Laboratory  Work  in  Physiological  Chemistry.  ..8vo,  i  25 

Lassar-Cohn's  Practical  Urinary  Analysis.     (Lorenz.) 

Mandel's  Hand  Book  for  the  Bio-Chemical  Laboratory mo,     i  50 

*  Pauli's  Physical  Chemistry  in  the  Service  of  Medicine.     (Fischer.).  .  .  .      mo,     i  25 

mo,  i  oo 

mo,  i  oo 

Ruddiman's  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions 8vo,  2  oo 

Whys  in  Pharmacy I2mo,  i  oo 

Salkowski's  Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry.     (Orndorff.) 8vo,  2  50 

*  Satterlee's  Outlines  of  Human  Embryology I2mo,  i  25 

Smith's  Lecture  Notes  on  Chemistry  for  Dental  Students ovo,  2  $.> 

16 


*  Pozzi-Escot's  Toxins  and  Venoms  and  their  Antibodies.     (Cohn.). ,. 
Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.     (Bolduan.) 


Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog gVOi  ,  go 

*  Whipple's  Typhoid  Fever Large  12 mo,'  3  oo 

Woodhull's  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene i6mo,  i  50 

*  Personal  Hygiene '  I2mo't  l  o<x 

Worcester  and  Atkinson's  Small  Hospitals  Establishment  and  Maintenance, 

and  Suggestions  for  Hospital  Architecture,  with  Plans  for  a  Small 

Hospital I3mo>  z  25 

METALLURGY. 

Betts's  Lead  Refining  by  Electrolysis 8vo.  4  oo 

Holland's  Encyclopedia  of  Founding  and  Dictionary  of  Foundry  Terms    Used 

in  the  Practice  of  Moulding I2mo,  3  oo 

Iron  Founder 12mo'.  2  50 

Supplement 12mo,  2  50 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects I2mo,  i  oo 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals:     A  Reference  Book , i6mo,  mor.  3  oo 

*  Iles's  Lead-smelting 12mo,  2  50 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Le  Chatelier's  High-temperature  Measurements.  (Boudouard — Burgess.)  12mo,  3  oo 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users 12mo,  2  oo 

Miller's  Cyanide  Process 13mo  i  oo 

Minet's  Production  of  Aluminum  and  its  Industrial  Use.     (Waldo.).. .  .  I2mo,  2  50 

Robine  and  Lenglen's  Cyanide  Industry.     (Le  Clerc.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Ruer's  Elements  of  Metallography.     (Mathewson).     (In  Press.) 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines 12mo,  i  co 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     In  Three  Parts 8vo,  8  oo 

part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering,  see  Civil  Engineering, 


Part    II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Part  HI.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo,  2  5* 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  oo 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice 12mo,  2  50 

Moulders  Text  Book 12mo,  2  50 

Wilson's  Chlorination  Process 12mo,  i  50 

Cyanide  Processes 12mo,  i  50 

MINERALOGY. 

Barringer's  Description  of  Minerals  of  Commercial  Value.    Oblong,  morocco,  2  50 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia 8vo  3  oo 

Boyd's  Map  of  Southwest  Virginia Pocket-book  form.  2  oo 

*  Browning's  Introduction  to  the  Rarer  Elements 8vo,    i  50 

Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.     (Penfield.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Butler's  Pocket  Hand-Book  of  Minerals 16mo,  mor.  3  oo 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals 8vo,  paper,  i  oo 

Cloth,  i  25 

Crane's  Gold  and  Silver.     (In  Press.) 

Dana's  First  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "  System  of  Mineralogy. ." .  .  Large  8vo,  i  oo 

Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography I2mo  2  oo 

Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them I2mo,  i  50 

System  of  Mineralogy Large  8vo,  half  leather,  12  50 

Text-book  of  Mineralogy 8vo,  4  oo 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects I2mo,  i  oo 

Eakle's  Mineral  Tables 8v°.  '  25 

Stone  and  Clay  Products  Used  in  Engineering.     (In  Preparation). 

Egleston's  Catalogue  of  Minerals  and  Synonyms .  .  .8vo,  2  50 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals :     A  Reference  Book i6mo.mor.  300 

Groth's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Crystallography  (Marshall) iamo,  i  25 

17 


*  Iddings's  Rock  Minerals 8vo,  5  oo 

Johannsen's  Determination  of  Rock-forming  Minerals  in  Thin  Sections Svo,  4  oo 

*  Martin's  Laboratory  Guide  to  (Qualitative  Analysis  with  the  Blowpipe,  lamo,  60 
Merrill's  Non-metallic  Minerals:   Their  Occurrence  and  Uses 8vo,  4  oo 

Stones  for  Building;  and  Decoration 8vo,  500 

*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Mineral  Tests. 

8vo,  paper,  50 
Tables    of    Minerals,    Including    the  Use  of  Minerals  and  Statistics  of 

Domestic  Production 8vo,  i   oo 

Pirsson's  Rocks  and  Rock  Minerals.     (In  Press.) 

*  Richards's  Synopsis  of  Mineral  Characters izmo,  mor.  i  25 

*  Ries's  Clays:  Their  Occurrence,  Properties,  and  Uses 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Tiilman's  Text-book  of  Important  Minerals  and  Rocks 8vo,  2  oo 

MINING. 

*  Beard's  Mine  Gases  and  Explosions Large  i2mo,  3  oo 

Boyd's  Map  of  Southwest  Virginia Pocket-book  form,  2  oo 

Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia 8vo,  3  oo 

Crane's  Gold  and  Silver.     (In  Press.) 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects I2mo,  I  OO 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives.    8-3  4  oo 

Goesel's  Minerals  and  Metals :     A  Reference  Book i6mo,  mor.  3  oo 

II  Iseng's  Manual  of  Mining 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Iles's  Lead-smelting i2mo,  2  50 

Miller's  Cyanide  Process I2mo,  i  oo 

O'Driscoll's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores Svo,  2  oo 

Peele '  s  Compressed  Air  Plant  for  Mines .     ( I  n  Pres  s. ) 

Riemer's  Shaft  Sinking  Under  Difficult  Conditions.     (Corning  and  Peele) ...  Svo,  3  oo 

Robine  and  Lenglen's  Cyanide  Industry.     (Le  Clerc.) Svo,  4  oo 

*  Weaver's  Military  Explosives Svo,  3  oo 

Wilson's  Chlorination  Process umo,  i  50 

Cyanide  Processes 12010,  i  50 

Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining.     2d  edi'.ion,  rewritten I2mo,  2  50 

Treatise  on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Mine  Ventilation I2mo,  i  25 

SANITARY  SCIENCE. 

Association  of  State  and  National  Food  and  Dairy  Departments,  Hartford  Meeting, 

1906 Svo,  3  oo 

Jamestown  Meeting,  1907 Svo,  3  oo 

*  Bashore's  Outlines  of  Practical  Sanitation 12mo,  i  25 

Sanitation  of  a  Country  House 12mo,  i  oo 

Sanitation  of  Recreation  Camps  and  Parks 12mo,  i  oo 

Folwell's  Sewerage.  (Designing,  Construction,  and  Maintenance.) Svo,  3  oo 

Water-supply  Engineering Svo,  4  oo 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses 12mD,  2  oo 

Fuertes's  Water-filtration  Works 12mo,  2  50 

Water  and  Public  Health 12mo,  i  50 

Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  House-inspection 16mo,  i  oo 

*  Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses Svo,  300 

Sanitation  of  Public  Buildings 12mo,  i   50 

Hazen's  Clean  Water  and  How  to  Get  It Large  I2mo,  i  50 

Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies Svo,  3  oo 

Kinnicut,  Winslow  and  Pratt's  Purification  of  Sewage.     (In  Press. ) 

Leach's   Inspection   and   Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control Svo,  7  oo 

Mason's  Examination  of  Water.     (Chemical  ar.d  Bacteriological) I2mo,  i  25 

Water-supply.  (Considered  principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint).  .8vo,  4  oo 
18 


*  Merriman's  Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering 8vo,  2  oo 

O?den's  Sewer  Design I2mo,  2  oo 

Parsons 's  Disposal  of  Municipal  Refuse 8vo,  2  oo 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Sanitary  Water  Analysis 12mo,  i  50 

*  Price's  Handbook  on  Sanitation 12mo,  i  50 

Richards's  Cost  of  Food.     A  Study  in  Dietaries 12mo,  i  oo 

Cost  of  Living  as  ModiSed  by  Sanitary  Science 12mo,  i  oo 

Cost  of  Shelter 12mo,  i  oo 

*  Richards  and  Williams's  Dietary  Computer 8vo,  i  50 

Richards  and   Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Stand- 
point  8vo,  2  oo 

Rideal's  Disinfection  and  the  Preservation  of  Food 8vo,  4  oo 

Sewage  and  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo,  4  oo 

Soper's  Air  and  Ventilation  of  Subways.     (In  Press.) 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  5  oo 

Venable's  Garbage  Crematories  in  America 8vo,  2  oo 

Method  and  Devices  for  Bacterial  Treatment  of  Sewage 8vo,  3  oo 

Ward  and  Whipple's  Freshwater  Biology.     (In  Press.) 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3  So 

*  Typhod  Fever Large  I2mo,  3  oo 

Value  of  Pure  Water Large  I2mo,  i  oo 

Winton's  Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods 8vo,  7  50 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Emmons's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Excursion  of  the 

International  Congress  of  Geologists Large  8vo,  i  50 

Ferrel's  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Winds 8vo,  4  oo 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist i8mo,  i  OD 

Gannett's  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  World 24mo,  75 

Haines's  American  Railway  Management 12mo,  2  50 

*  Hanusek's  The  Microscopy  of  Technical  Products.     (Winton1 8vo,  5  oo 

Ricketts's  History  of  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute   1824-1894. 

Large  i2mo,  3  oo 

Rotherham's  Emphasized  New  Testament Large  8vo,  2  oo 

standage's  Decoration  of  Wood,  Glass,  Metal,  etc 12mo,  2  oo 

Thome's  Structural  and  Physiological  Botany.     (Bennett) 16mo,  2  25 

Westermaier's  Compendium  of  General  Botany.     (Schneider) 8vo,  2  oo 

Winslow's  Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy 12mo,  i   50 


HEBREW  AND   CHALDEE  TEXT-BOOKS. 

Green's  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar I2mo,     i  25 

Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

(Tregelles  ) Small  4to,  half  morocco,    5  oo 

id 


TS>. 

154(3 
M43 

1907 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


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